1 00:00:00,500 --> 00:00:01,568 TODAY, WE HAVE NOT ONE, BUT TWO 2 00:00:01,568 --> 00:00:02,635 SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS FOR YOU 3 00:00:02,635 --> 00:00:04,304 ABOUT OCEANS BEYOND EARTH. 4 00:00:04,304 --> 00:00:05,939 WE WILL BE GOING COAST TO COAST 5 00:00:05,939 --> 00:00:08,074 AND OCEAN TO OCEAN TO TALK TO 6 00:00:08,074 --> 00:00:09,209 EXPERTS STARTING FROM PEOPLE 7 00:00:09,209 --> 00:00:12,112 RIGHT HERE IN WASHINGTON D.C. 8 00:00:12,112 --> 00:00:13,413 AND THEN ALSO GOING ALL THE WAY 9 00:00:13,413 --> 00:00:16,116 TO THE WEST COAST TO TALK TO 10 00:00:16,116 --> 00:00:19,152 NASA'S JET PROPULSION LABORATORY 11 00:00:19,152 --> 00:00:20,787 IN PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. 12 00:00:20,787 --> 00:00:22,055 AND THEN, WE WILL GO ALL THE WAY 13 00:00:22,055 --> 00:00:24,391 TO THE EAST COAST TO TALK TO 14 00:00:24,391 --> 00:00:27,861 NASA'S GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT 15 00:00:27,861 --> 00:00:30,230 CENTER IN GREENBELT, MARYLAND. 16 00:00:30,230 --> 00:00:32,465 TODAY'SPAN LISTS ARE THOMAS 17 00:00:32,465 --> 00:00:37,203 ZURBUCHEN, ASSOCIATE 18 00:00:37,203 --> 00:00:40,707 ADMINISTRATOR FOR TO THE SCIENCE 19 00:00:40,707 --> 00:00:44,677 MISSION DIRECTORATE, MARY, LEAD 20 00:00:44,677 --> 00:00:46,146 SCIENTIST FOR NASA'S ASTRO 21 00:00:46,146 --> 00:00:46,846 BIOLOGY PROGRAM. 22 00:00:46,846 --> 00:00:50,250 THE ALISTS AT J.P.L. IN 23 00:00:50,250 --> 00:00:54,187 CALIFORNIA ARE LINDA SPILKER, 24 00:00:54,187 --> 00:00:58,324 PROJECT SCIENTIST, HUNTER WAITE, 25 00:00:58,324 --> 00:01:00,794 THE IMMS TEAM LEAD WITH THE 26 00:01:00,794 --> 00:01:02,729 SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE IN 27 00:01:02,729 --> 00:01:05,865 SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. 28 00:01:05,865 --> 00:01:11,504 CHRIS GLINE, THE INMS TEAM 29 00:01:11,504 --> 00:01:11,871 ASSOCIATE. 30 00:01:11,871 --> 00:01:15,475 AND, JOINING US FROM GODDARD IN 31 00:01:15,475 --> 00:01:17,210 MARYLAND, WILLIAM SPARKS, 32 00:01:17,210 --> 00:01:18,645 ASTRONOMER AND LEAD AUTHOR OF 33 00:01:18,645 --> 00:01:22,282 THE HUBBLE FINDINGS. 34 00:01:22,282 --> 00:01:27,187 THE NEWS TODAY CAN BE FOUND AT 35 00:01:27,187 --> 00:01:31,391 NASA .GOV AND ALSO THE FOLLOWING 36 00:01:31,391 --> 00:01:31,991 WEB PAGES. 37 00:01:31,991 --> 00:01:33,893 IF YOU WOULD LIKE TO ASK 38 00:01:33,893 --> 00:01:35,295 QUESTIONS VIA SOCIAL MEDIA, 39 00:01:35,295 --> 00:01:36,863 PLEASE USE THE HASHTAG ASK NASA. 40 00:01:36,863 --> 00:01:38,998 WITH THAT, THOMAS, CAN YOU KICK 41 00:01:38,998 --> 00:01:40,233 US OFF. 42 00:01:40,233 --> 00:01:43,236 >> THANKS SO MUCH, FELICIA. 43 00:01:43,236 --> 00:01:44,871 IT'S ANOTHER GREAT DAY OF 44 00:01:44,871 --> 00:01:45,638 SCIENCE AT NASA. 45 00:01:45,638 --> 00:01:47,841 WE FOCUS ON THREE OBJECTIVES. 46 00:01:47,841 --> 00:01:49,175 THE FIRST ONE IS TO UNDERSTAND 47 00:01:49,175 --> 00:01:53,012 AND TO IMPROVE LIFE ON EARTH. 48 00:01:53,012 --> 00:01:55,048 WE ALSO DO FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH 49 00:01:55,048 --> 00:01:57,484 FROM HERE TO THE DEPTHS OF THE 50 00:01:57,484 --> 00:01:59,352 UNIVERSE AND UNDERSTAND 51 00:01:59,352 --> 00:02:00,753 PROCESSES WE HAVE NEVER 52 00:02:00,753 --> 00:02:02,021 UNDERSTOOD BEFORE AND, THE THIRD 53 00:02:02,021 --> 00:02:03,723 TOPIC IS ONE THAT THIS IS ALL 54 00:02:03,723 --> 00:02:06,926 ABOUT, WHICH IS ABOUT A 55 00:02:06,926 --> 00:02:10,830 FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION THAT HAS -- 56 00:02:10,830 --> 00:02:12,465 HAS FAILED THE THINKS OF SO MANY 57 00:02:12,465 --> 00:02:14,868 IN THE PAST AND WE CAN ANSWER 58 00:02:14,868 --> 00:02:17,136 NOW, HOPEFULLY IN THE NEAR 59 00:02:17,136 --> 00:02:18,638 FUTURE AND THAT IS -- IS THERE 60 00:02:18,638 --> 00:02:20,907 LIFE ELSEWHERE? 61 00:02:20,907 --> 00:02:21,941 HERE ON EARTH THERE'S A NUMBER 62 00:02:21,941 --> 00:02:23,276 OF THINGS THAT HELP LIFE. 63 00:02:23,276 --> 00:02:25,211 THERE'S WATER IN A LIQUID FORM. 64 00:02:25,211 --> 00:02:27,914 WE HAVE AN ATMOSPHERE, A 65 00:02:27,914 --> 00:02:29,048 MAGNETIC FIELD THAT PROTECTS US 66 00:02:29,048 --> 00:02:31,317 FROM THE HAZARDS OF SPACE. 67 00:02:31,317 --> 00:02:32,585 THERE'S MANY THINGS WE HAVE 68 00:02:32,585 --> 00:02:34,787 GOING FOR OUR SELF. 69 00:02:34,787 --> 00:02:35,989 SO, THE QUESTION OF WHETHER 70 00:02:35,989 --> 00:02:37,423 THERE IS LIFE OUT THERE RELATES 71 00:02:37,423 --> 00:02:39,025 TO QUESTIONS THAT WE ARE MAKING 72 00:02:39,025 --> 00:02:41,794 PROGRESS WITH ALL THE TIME AND 73 00:02:41,794 --> 00:02:43,563 QUESTIONS THAT WE HAVE, NEW 74 00:02:43,563 --> 00:02:44,831 QUESTIONS THAT ARE COMING 75 00:02:44,831 --> 00:02:46,666 FORWARD WE DON'T KNOW YET. 76 00:02:46,666 --> 00:02:49,369 WHETHER THERE IS LIFE OUT THERE. 77 00:02:49,369 --> 00:02:50,703 BUT, RIGHT NOW WE ARE MAKING A 78 00:02:50,703 --> 00:02:52,605 LOT OF PROGRESS ESPECIALLY THE 79 00:02:52,605 --> 00:02:54,707 OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM. 80 00:02:54,707 --> 00:02:56,843 SO, THIS IS EXACTLY WHAT TODAY'S 81 00:02:56,843 --> 00:02:58,878 STORIES ARE ALL ABOUT. 82 00:02:58,878 --> 00:03:01,114 WITH THIS RESEARCH, WE ARE 83 00:03:01,114 --> 00:03:05,852 MAKING A BIG STEP FORWARD TOWARD 84 00:03:05,852 --> 00:03:07,020 ANSWERING THE QUESTION -- IS 85 00:03:07,020 --> 00:03:08,154 THERE LIFE OUT THERE? 86 00:03:08,154 --> 00:03:10,089 AND WITH THAT, I AM TURNING IT 87 00:03:10,089 --> 00:03:12,559 OVER TO THE TEAM. 88 00:03:12,559 --> 00:03:14,227 >> THANK YOU, THOMAS. 89 00:03:14,227 --> 00:03:16,429 SO, NASA STRATEGY FOR SEARCHING 90 00:03:16,429 --> 00:03:17,730 FOR LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE BEGINS 91 00:03:17,730 --> 00:03:19,299 AT HOME WITH AN UNDERSTANDING OF 92 00:03:19,299 --> 00:03:21,134 HOW LIFE EMERGED AND EVOLVED 93 00:03:21,134 --> 00:03:23,102 HERE ON EARTH AND WHAT THE 94 00:03:23,102 --> 00:03:25,138 LIMITS TO LIFE ARE ON THIS 95 00:03:25,138 --> 00:03:25,471 PLANET. 96 00:03:25,471 --> 00:03:26,940 WE THEN PROJECT THAT OUT ON TO 97 00:03:26,940 --> 00:03:28,875 OTHER PLACES IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM 98 00:03:28,875 --> 00:03:31,744 TO SEE IF WE CAN FIND HABITABLE 99 00:03:31,744 --> 00:03:32,579 ENVIRONMENTS THAT CAN SUPPORT 100 00:03:32,579 --> 00:03:34,514 LIFE AS WE KNOW IT. 101 00:03:34,514 --> 00:03:36,683 40 YEARS AGO, NASA SENT TWO 102 00:03:36,683 --> 00:03:38,418 VIKING LANDERS TO MARS TO LOOK 103 00:03:38,418 --> 00:03:41,688 FOR EVIDENCE OF LIFE ON THE RED 104 00:03:41,688 --> 00:03:42,021 PLANET. 105 00:03:42,021 --> 00:03:44,090 AT THE SAME TIME, OCEANOGRAPHERS 106 00:03:44,090 --> 00:03:46,059 HERE ON THIS PLANET, ON EARTH, 107 00:03:46,059 --> 00:03:47,961 WERE EXPLORING THE LAST 108 00:03:47,961 --> 00:03:48,328 FRONTIER. 109 00:03:48,328 --> 00:03:49,195 THE DEEP OCEAN. 110 00:03:49,195 --> 00:03:50,830 AND DURING THAT EXPLORATION, 111 00:03:50,830 --> 00:03:53,900 THEY FOUND AN ASTONISH -- OR 112 00:03:53,900 --> 00:03:55,535 MADE AN ASTONISHING DISCOVERY 113 00:03:55,535 --> 00:03:56,769 THAT CHANGED HOW WE THOUGHT 114 00:03:56,769 --> 00:03:57,971 ABOUT EARTH AND HOW WE THOUGHT 115 00:03:57,971 --> 00:03:59,439 ABOUT LIFE HERE ON EARTH AND 116 00:03:59,439 --> 00:04:02,809 THAT WAS AN INCREDIBLE OASIS OF 117 00:04:02,809 --> 00:04:04,143 LIFE SUPPORTED THOUSANDS OF 118 00:04:04,143 --> 00:04:05,812 METERS BENEATH THE SURFACE OF 119 00:04:05,812 --> 00:04:08,915 THE OCEAN FAR AWAY FROM SUNLIGHT 120 00:04:08,915 --> 00:04:10,083 AND IT WAS SUPPORTED BY THE 121 00:04:10,083 --> 00:04:14,787 ENERGY PRODUCED BY HYDROTHERMAL 122 00:04:14,787 --> 00:04:15,154 ACTIVITY. 123 00:04:15,154 --> 00:04:16,656 NOW THIS DISCOVERY WAS 124 00:04:16,656 --> 00:04:18,224 INCREDIBLE FOR HERE ON EARTH. 125 00:04:18,224 --> 00:04:19,859 IT LED TO INVESTIGATIONS OF MANY 126 00:04:19,859 --> 00:04:22,595 OTHER EVENTS, HUNDREDS OF 127 00:04:22,595 --> 00:04:24,063 EVENTS, WHICH IS ONLY A TINY 128 00:04:24,063 --> 00:04:26,099 PORTION OF THE NUMBER OF EVENTS 129 00:04:26,099 --> 00:04:27,467 THAT MUST BE ACTIVE HERE ON 130 00:04:27,467 --> 00:04:28,968 EARTH BUT IT POINTED OUT A NEW 131 00:04:28,968 --> 00:04:31,904 TYPE OF BIOLOGY SUPPORTED BY 132 00:04:31,904 --> 00:04:33,606 CHEMISTRY THAT DIDN'T REQUIRE 133 00:04:33,606 --> 00:04:34,841 SUNLIGHT, WHICH MEANT THAT WE 134 00:04:34,841 --> 00:04:38,177 COULD EXTEND OUR HABITABLE 135 00:04:38,177 --> 00:04:38,878 ENVIRONMENT WELL BEYOND THE 136 00:04:38,878 --> 00:04:41,047 REACH OF OUR SUN. 137 00:04:41,047 --> 00:04:43,650 OUT INTO THE OUTER SOLAR SYSTEM. 138 00:04:43,650 --> 00:04:46,319 OUT TO THE MOONS OF SATURN AND 139 00:04:46,319 --> 00:04:46,653 JUPITER. 140 00:04:46,653 --> 00:04:48,121 AS WE IMAGINE ENVIRONMENTS VERY 141 00:04:48,121 --> 00:04:50,790 MUCH LIKE OUR OWN HYDROTHERMAL 142 00:04:50,790 --> 00:04:51,924 EVENTS HERE ON EARTH COULD EXIST 143 00:04:51,924 --> 00:04:52,625 OUT THERE. 144 00:04:52,625 --> 00:04:53,993 SO TODAY'S DISCOVERIES HAVE TO 145 00:04:53,993 --> 00:04:56,462 DO WITH OCEAN WORLDS BEYOND OUR 146 00:04:56,462 --> 00:04:58,031 OWN PLANET AND JIM'S GOING TO 147 00:04:58,031 --> 00:04:59,632 TELL YOU ABOUT THE MISSIONS THAT 148 00:04:59,632 --> 00:05:00,733 BROUGHT THIS TO US. 149 00:05:00,733 --> 00:05:03,202 >> IT REALLY BEGAN IN THE LATE 150 00:05:03,202 --> 00:05:06,639 1990s WITH THE MISSION 151 00:05:06,639 --> 00:05:07,740 GALLILEO. 152 00:05:07,740 --> 00:05:09,942 GALLILEO ORBITING JUPITER WAS 153 00:05:09,942 --> 00:05:12,145 FLYING BY THE INDIVIDUAL MOONS, 154 00:05:12,145 --> 00:05:15,314 THE GALLILAND MOONS, MAKING 155 00:05:15,314 --> 00:05:16,916 OBSERVATIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE, 156 00:05:16,916 --> 00:05:18,685 MANY MANY THINGS IN THAT SOLAR 157 00:05:20,353 --> 00:05:19,018 SYSTEM. 158 00:05:20,353 --> 00:05:26,492 WHAT IT DISCOVERED FROM ITS 159 00:05:26,492 --> 00:05:27,360 MAGNETOMETERS, IT FLEW REALLY 160 00:05:27,360 --> 00:05:30,430 CLOSE TO EUROPEA, WAS A MAGNETIC 161 00:05:30,430 --> 00:05:31,731 SIGNATURE THAT'S VERY FAMILIAR 162 00:05:31,731 --> 00:05:33,666 WITH OUR SCIENTISTS BECAUSE WE 163 00:05:33,666 --> 00:05:34,834 INTERPRET IT AS A CURRENT WITHIN 164 00:05:34,834 --> 00:05:39,238 AN OCEAN UNDERNEATH AN ICE 165 00:05:39,238 --> 00:05:39,572 SHELF. 166 00:05:39,572 --> 00:05:43,743 IN 2005, CASIMI, ORBITING 167 00:05:43,743 --> 00:05:46,345 SATURN, FLYING BY THE MOONS OF 168 00:05:46,345 --> 00:05:50,817 SATURN, WITH CLOSE FLY BYES OF 169 00:05:50,817 --> 00:05:52,785 INSOLIDUS, IT OBSERVED HUGE 170 00:05:52,785 --> 00:05:54,687 PLUMES OF WATER EMANATING FROM 171 00:05:54,687 --> 00:05:55,021 CRACKS. 172 00:05:55,021 --> 00:06:00,259 WE NOW BELIEVE THAT INSOLIDUS 173 00:06:00,259 --> 00:06:01,527 ALSO HAS A HUGE OCEAN. 174 00:06:01,527 --> 00:06:02,962 WE CALL THESE BODIES AND MANY 175 00:06:02,962 --> 00:06:04,664 OTHERS THAT ARE LIKE THEM -- 176 00:06:04,664 --> 00:06:05,364 OCEAN WORLDS. 177 00:06:05,364 --> 00:06:09,569 THEY ARE PROTECTED BY AN ICE 178 00:06:09,569 --> 00:06:11,637 SHELL MUCH LIKE OUR ATMOSPHERE 179 00:06:11,637 --> 00:06:13,539 PROTECTS US, OUR LIFE HERE ON 180 00:06:13,539 --> 00:06:15,308 EARTH AND OUR OCEAN MAINTAINING 181 00:06:15,308 --> 00:06:16,442 ITS LIQUID. 182 00:06:16,442 --> 00:06:17,944 THIS IS TRULY AN EXCITING TIME 183 00:06:17,944 --> 00:06:20,446 FOR US TO BE ABLE TO PROBE THOSE 184 00:06:20,446 --> 00:06:22,815 AND REALLY TRY TO UNDERSTAND 185 00:06:22,815 --> 00:06:24,517 WHAT'S HAPPENING IN THESE OCEAN 186 00:06:24,517 --> 00:06:26,586 WORLDS. 187 00:06:26,586 --> 00:06:28,788 WHAT WE WILL TALK ABOUT TODAY 188 00:06:28,788 --> 00:06:32,024 ARE TWO REALLY WONDERFUL 189 00:06:32,024 --> 00:06:35,528 DISCOVERIES CONTINUING BACK TO 190 00:06:35,528 --> 00:06:36,529 CASINI WHICH HAS ALWAYS BEEN ONE 191 00:06:36,529 --> 00:06:39,365 OF THE MAJOR MISSIONS THAT WE 192 00:06:39,365 --> 00:06:40,967 HAVE MAKING HUGE NUMBER OF 193 00:06:40,967 --> 00:06:42,802 DISCOVERIES AND WE WILL TALK 194 00:06:42,802 --> 00:06:44,737 ABOUT INSOLIDUS AND WHAT IT'S 195 00:06:44,737 --> 00:06:45,404 FOUND OUT. 196 00:06:45,404 --> 00:06:48,174 WE WILL ALSO TALK ABOUT HUBBLE 197 00:06:48,174 --> 00:06:50,009 OBSERVATIONS BACK TO EUROPEA. 198 00:06:50,009 --> 00:06:53,012 THESE TWO OCEAN WORLDS WE ARE 199 00:06:53,012 --> 00:06:55,481 GOING TO LINK TOGETHER BECAUSE 200 00:06:55,481 --> 00:06:56,849 THEY ARE SO SIMILAR IN MANY, 201 00:06:56,849 --> 00:06:58,151 MANY WAYS THAT I HOPE YOU WILL 202 00:06:58,151 --> 00:07:00,119 SEE AS WE GO THROUGH OUR 203 00:07:00,119 --> 00:07:01,287 DISCOVERIES TODAY. 204 00:07:01,287 --> 00:07:03,489 SO, WITHOUT FURTHER ADO, LET'S 205 00:07:03,489 --> 00:07:07,460 GO TO J.P.L. AND TALK TO LINDA 206 00:07:07,460 --> 00:07:08,161 SPILKER. 207 00:07:08,161 --> 00:07:11,664 LINDA, WHAT'S CASINI BEEN 208 00:07:11,664 --> 00:07:12,064 OBSERVING? 209 00:07:12,064 --> 00:07:13,666 >> WELL IT'S BEEN IN ORBIT 210 00:07:13,666 --> 00:07:15,768 AROUND SATURN FOR ALMOST 13 211 00:07:15,768 --> 00:07:17,904 YEARS AND OUR UNEXPECTED 212 00:07:17,904 --> 00:07:20,239 DISCOVERIES ABOUT INSOLIDUS HAVE 213 00:07:20,239 --> 00:07:21,474 BEEN SOME OF THE MOST 214 00:07:21,474 --> 00:07:21,874 SURPRISING. 215 00:07:21,874 --> 00:07:23,643 TODAY WE ARE PUBLISHING A PAPER 216 00:07:23,643 --> 00:07:28,648 ABOUT OUR RESENT FINDINGS BY 217 00:07:28,648 --> 00:07:30,917 CASINI ON INSOLIDUS. 218 00:07:30,917 --> 00:07:32,385 WE DISCOVERED HYDROGEN COMING 219 00:07:32,385 --> 00:07:34,987 FROM A HYDROTHERMAL VENT ON THE 220 00:07:34,987 --> 00:07:36,956 SEA FLOOR GOING OUT INTO SPACE 221 00:07:36,956 --> 00:07:37,523 THROUGH THE PLUME. 222 00:07:37,523 --> 00:07:42,261 SO THIS IS A VERY SIGNIFICANT 223 00:07:42,261 --> 00:07:44,664 FINDING BECAUSE THE HYDROGENERAL 224 00:07:44,664 --> 00:07:46,732 COULD BE A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF 225 00:07:46,732 --> 00:07:50,002 CHEMICAL ENERGY FOR ANY MICROBES 226 00:07:50,002 --> 00:07:52,638 THAT COULD BE IN INSOLIDUS 227 00:07:52,638 --> 00:07:52,972 OCEAN. 228 00:07:52,972 --> 00:07:56,242 THIS IS A SIGNIFICANT FINDING. 229 00:07:56,242 --> 00:07:57,743 INSOLIDUS IS TOO SMALL TO RETAIN 230 00:07:57,743 --> 00:08:00,913 THE HYDROGEN WHEN IT FORMED. 231 00:08:00,913 --> 00:08:02,215 THE HYDROGEN GAS WE SEE IS 232 00:08:02,215 --> 00:08:05,218 COMING FROM INSIDE INSOLIDUS. 233 00:08:05,218 --> 00:08:06,485 LET'S TAKE A QUICK LOOK AT SOME 234 00:08:06,485 --> 00:08:08,521 OF CASINI'S FIRST FINDINGS. 235 00:08:08,521 --> 00:08:11,357 THIS IS A VIEW OF THE SOUTH POLE 236 00:08:11,357 --> 00:08:17,363 OF INSOLIDUS AND THE GEYSERS ARE 237 00:08:17,363 --> 00:08:20,066 COMING FROM THOSE TIGER STRIPES, 238 00:08:20,066 --> 00:08:21,634 THOSE BLUISH FRACTURES THAT YOU 239 00:08:21,634 --> 00:08:22,335 CAN SEE. 240 00:08:22,335 --> 00:08:23,536 IN THE NEXT PICTURE, YOU CAN SEE 241 00:08:23,536 --> 00:08:25,271 THE JETS SHOOTING OUT INTO SPACE 242 00:08:25,271 --> 00:08:28,908 FORMING THE GIANT PLUME AROUND 243 00:08:28,908 --> 00:08:29,308 INSOLIDUS. 244 00:08:29,308 --> 00:08:30,910 UNDERNEATH THAT ICY CRUST AS JIM 245 00:08:30,910 --> 00:08:32,245 SAID IS A GLOBAL OCEAN. 246 00:08:32,245 --> 00:08:34,080 THAT GLOBAL OCEAN SITS ON TOP OF 247 00:08:34,080 --> 00:08:35,815 A ROCKY CORE. 248 00:08:35,815 --> 00:08:39,452 AND, SOME OF CASINI'S FINDINGS 249 00:08:39,452 --> 00:08:41,988 POINTED TO HYDROTHERMAL VENTS, 250 00:08:41,988 --> 00:08:43,222 BASICALLY HOT WATER COMING OUT 251 00:08:43,222 --> 00:08:44,724 AFTER IT'S BEEN MIXED WITH THE 252 00:08:44,724 --> 00:08:46,192 ROCKY CORE AND THIS FINAL IMAGE 253 00:08:46,192 --> 00:08:47,260 SHOWS A THERMAL MAP. 254 00:08:47,260 --> 00:08:49,228 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOUTH 255 00:08:49,228 --> 00:08:49,528 POLE. 256 00:08:49,528 --> 00:08:50,429 WE CAN SEE THE WARMEST 257 00:08:50,429 --> 00:08:51,797 TEMPERATURES WITH THE YELLOW AND 258 00:08:51,797 --> 00:08:54,433 RED ARE RIGHT ALONG THE TIGER 259 00:08:54,433 --> 00:08:55,735 STRIPE FRACTURES. 260 00:08:55,735 --> 00:08:57,236 SO, WHAT'S NEW TODAY? 261 00:08:57,236 --> 00:08:59,939 THE NEW FINDING IS FINDING 262 00:08:59,939 --> 00:09:02,174 HYDROGEN COMING FROM THE PLUME 263 00:09:02,174 --> 00:09:03,676 OF INSOLIDUS AND THE FACT THAT 264 00:09:03,676 --> 00:09:06,312 IT COULD SUPPORT, POTENTIALLY, 265 00:09:06,312 --> 00:09:07,980 MICROBES WITH ENERGY ON THE SEA 266 00:09:07,980 --> 00:09:09,015 FLOOR OF INSOLIDUS. 267 00:09:09,015 --> 00:09:10,983 NOW, THIS FINDING IS THE RESULT 268 00:09:10,983 --> 00:09:14,287 OF 12 YEARS OF CASINI 269 00:09:14,287 --> 00:09:14,720 INVESTIGATION. 270 00:09:14,720 --> 00:09:16,656 AND IT REALLY REPRESENTS A 271 00:09:16,656 --> 00:09:18,024 CAPSTONE FINDING FOR THE 272 00:09:18,024 --> 00:09:18,391 MISSION. 273 00:09:18,391 --> 00:09:20,459 BECAUSE WE NOW KNOW THAT 274 00:09:20,459 --> 00:09:22,995 INSOLIDUS HAS ALMOST ALL OF THE 275 00:09:22,995 --> 00:09:24,597 INGREDIENTS THAT YOU WOULD NEED 276 00:09:24,597 --> 00:09:26,599 TO SUPPORT LIFE AS WE KNOW IT ON 277 00:09:26,599 --> 00:09:28,034 EARTH. 278 00:09:28,034 --> 00:09:30,436 WELL, HERE I HAVE A MODEL OF THE 279 00:09:30,436 --> 00:09:31,704 CASINI SPACE CRAFT AND HUNTER, 280 00:09:31,704 --> 00:09:33,572 MAYBE YOU CAN SHOW US WHERE YOUR 281 00:09:33,572 --> 00:09:35,308 INSTRUMENT IS THAT DETECTED THE 282 00:09:35,308 --> 00:09:35,675 HYDROGEN. 283 00:09:35,675 --> 00:09:37,276 >> YES, LINDA. 284 00:09:37,276 --> 00:09:41,914 THE INSTRUMENT, THE ION 285 00:09:41,914 --> 00:09:43,182 SPECTROMETER SITTING ON THE 286 00:09:43,182 --> 00:09:44,684 PLATFORM RIGHT HERE, IT DIRECTLY 287 00:09:44,684 --> 00:09:46,118 SAMPLES THE GAS THAT COMES IN AS 288 00:09:46,118 --> 00:09:48,187 WE FLY THROUGH THE PLUME. 289 00:09:48,187 --> 00:09:53,392 AS OPPOSED TO AN ULTRAVIOLET 290 00:09:53,392 --> 00:09:59,165 SPECTROMETER OR INTRA VIOLET 291 00:09:59,165 --> 00:10:00,766 SPECTROMETER. 292 00:10:00,766 --> 00:10:03,602 SO, THIS SAMPLING IS EXTREMELY 293 00:10:03,602 --> 00:10:05,504 IMPORTANT FOR DETECTING TRACE 294 00:10:05,504 --> 00:10:05,871 SPECIES. 295 00:10:05,871 --> 00:10:08,107 AND WE WERE ABLE TO, FROM 296 00:10:08,107 --> 00:10:10,743 PREVIOUS FLY-BYES AND PREVIOUS 297 00:10:10,743 --> 00:10:11,577 MEASUREMENTS, FIND OUT THAT THE 298 00:10:11,577 --> 00:10:14,981 PLUME IS 98% WATER. 299 00:10:14,981 --> 00:10:18,818 IT HAS TRACES OF AMMONIA, CARBON 300 00:10:18,818 --> 00:10:20,386 DIOXIDE, AND METHANE, AS WELL AS 301 00:10:20,386 --> 00:10:22,254 SOME ORGANICS. 302 00:10:22,254 --> 00:10:24,890 NOW, THE PART THAT HAD BEEN 303 00:10:24,890 --> 00:10:27,626 ELUSIVE TO US BEFORE WAS THE 304 00:10:27,626 --> 00:10:28,027 HYDROGEN. 305 00:10:28,027 --> 00:10:30,696 AND, SO LET ME BACK OFF HERE AND 306 00:10:30,696 --> 00:10:34,367 PICK UP A SIMILAR MODEL. 307 00:10:34,367 --> 00:10:38,738 WE HAVE A SIMULATION HERE OF 308 00:10:38,738 --> 00:10:40,473 INSOLIDUS AND THE TIGER STRIPE. 309 00:10:40,473 --> 00:10:44,210 AND SO, LET ME FLY MY SPACE 310 00:10:44,210 --> 00:10:46,112 CRAFT WITH THE I.M.S. POINTED IN 311 00:10:46,112 --> 00:10:49,849 THE DIRECTION OF MOTION OF THE 312 00:10:49,849 --> 00:10:51,183 PLACE CRAFT THROUGH THE PLUME 313 00:10:51,183 --> 00:10:52,718 MATERIAL SAMPLING THE GAS. 314 00:10:52,718 --> 00:10:54,186 THIS IS HOW IT HAPPENED WHEN WE 315 00:10:54,186 --> 00:10:55,921 WERE MAKING THE MEASUREMENT. 316 00:10:55,921 --> 00:10:58,324 IT WAS ABOUT EIGHT KILOMETERS 317 00:10:58,324 --> 00:10:59,191 ABOVE THE SURFACE. 318 00:10:59,191 --> 00:11:00,659 THIS HAPPENED IN OCTOBER OF 319 00:11:00,659 --> 00:11:01,694 2015. 320 00:11:01,694 --> 00:11:04,063 IT'S INTERESTING TO PUT THIS 321 00:11:04,063 --> 00:11:05,798 TOGETHER WITH THE OTHER 322 00:11:05,798 --> 00:11:08,034 MEASUREMENTS WE MADE OF THE 323 00:11:08,034 --> 00:11:10,469 COMPOSITION TO TRY TO DRAW SOME 324 00:11:10,469 --> 00:11:11,771 INFERENCES ABOUT WHAT'S GOING ON 325 00:11:11,771 --> 00:11:13,839 IN THE INTERIOR OF THE OCEAN. 326 00:11:13,839 --> 00:11:15,474 BECAUSE THIS MATERIAL IS TELLING 327 00:11:15,474 --> 00:11:16,876 US ABOUT COMPOSITION OF THE 328 00:11:16,876 --> 00:11:17,843 OCEAN. 329 00:11:17,843 --> 00:11:19,512 >> WELL HUNTER, WHAT WAS GOING 330 00:11:19,512 --> 00:11:20,679 THROUGH YOUR HEAD WHEN YOU 331 00:11:20,679 --> 00:11:23,015 LOOKED AT THE DATA AND YOU SAW 332 00:11:23,015 --> 00:11:23,449 HYDROGEN? 333 00:11:23,449 --> 00:11:24,917 >> WELL, OF COURSE WE WERE VERY 334 00:11:24,917 --> 00:11:26,419 EXCITED BECAUSE WE HAD BEEN 335 00:11:26,419 --> 00:11:27,520 PLANNING THIS FOR QUITE A WHILE 336 00:11:27,520 --> 00:11:29,855 AND WE HAD BEEN THINKING ABOUT 337 00:11:29,855 --> 00:11:32,458 WHAT POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS MIGHT 338 00:11:32,458 --> 00:11:32,992 BE. 339 00:11:32,992 --> 00:11:34,460 SO, TO DISCUSS THAT, LET ME TURN 340 00:11:34,460 --> 00:11:35,928 IT OVER TO CHRIS AND LET HIM 341 00:11:35,928 --> 00:11:38,431 TALK A LITTLE BIT ABOUT THAT. 342 00:11:38,431 --> 00:11:39,899 >> WILL LINDA, OUR TEAM 343 00:11:39,899 --> 00:11:40,666 CONSIDERED NUMEROUS 344 00:11:40,666 --> 00:11:41,834 POSSIBILITIES AND AFTER 345 00:11:41,834 --> 00:11:44,837 PERFORMING DETAILED CHEMICAL 346 00:11:44,837 --> 00:11:46,338 ANALYSIS, WE FOUND THAT THE BEST 347 00:11:46,338 --> 00:11:48,441 EXPLANATION IS THE HYDROGEN IS 348 00:11:48,441 --> 00:11:49,775 PRODUCED BY CHEMICAL REACTION 349 00:11:49,775 --> 00:11:51,077 BETWEEN WARM WATER AND ROCK. 350 00:11:51,077 --> 00:11:52,378 HERE'S A GRAPHIC SHOWING WHAT WE 351 00:11:52,378 --> 00:11:55,281 THINK IS GOING ON. 352 00:11:55,281 --> 00:11:57,416 WE THINK THAT HYDROTHERMAL 353 00:11:57,416 --> 00:11:59,685 FLUIDS ARE CIRCULATING BELOW THE 354 00:11:59,685 --> 00:12:00,886 OCEAN FLOOR ON INSOLIDUS. 355 00:12:00,886 --> 00:12:04,290 THIS EXPOSES ROCK TO WARM WATER 356 00:12:04,290 --> 00:12:07,026 WHICH DRIES GEO CHEMICAL 357 00:12:07,026 --> 00:12:07,493 TRANSFORMATION. 358 00:12:07,493 --> 00:12:08,494 AN IMPORTANT PROCESS THAT 359 00:12:08,494 --> 00:12:10,096 PRODUCES HUGE AMOUNTS OF 360 00:12:10,096 --> 00:12:15,601 HYDROGEN IS CALL ASKED 361 00:12:15,601 --> 00:12:16,102 SERPENTINIZATION. 362 00:12:16,102 --> 00:12:17,803 CERTAIN MINERALS THAT ARE RICH 363 00:12:17,803 --> 00:12:20,906 IN IRON REACT WITH WATER TO FORM 364 00:12:20,906 --> 00:12:23,142 NEW MINERALS AND HYDROGEN IS 365 00:12:23,142 --> 00:12:23,509 PRODUCED. 366 00:12:23,509 --> 00:12:24,243 THIS IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT 367 00:12:24,243 --> 00:12:26,879 SHOWS THAT THE GEOCHEMISTRY ACTS 368 00:12:26,879 --> 00:12:27,513 ON INSOLIDUS. 369 00:12:27,513 --> 00:12:29,215 IN ADDITION TO THIS, WE THINK 370 00:12:29,215 --> 00:12:33,119 THAT THE WARM HYDROTHERMAL 371 00:12:33,119 --> 00:12:34,286 FLUIDS CONTAIN DISSOLVED 372 00:12:34,286 --> 00:12:35,821 MINERALS AND WHEN THESE MINERALS 373 00:12:35,821 --> 00:12:36,989 MIX WITH THE OCEAN WATER WHICH 374 00:12:36,989 --> 00:12:40,926 IS COLD, MINERAL PRECIPITATES 375 00:12:40,926 --> 00:12:42,695 FORMAT THE SEA FLOOR. 376 00:12:42,695 --> 00:12:44,363 THESE MINERAL PRECIPITATES ON 377 00:12:44,363 --> 00:12:46,098 THE EARTH FORM WHITE SOLIDS SO 378 00:12:46,098 --> 00:12:49,135 WE CALL THEM WHITE SMOKERS. 379 00:12:49,135 --> 00:12:50,769 HERE'S A VIDEO SHOWING AN 380 00:12:50,769 --> 00:12:52,271 EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THESE SYSTEMS 381 00:12:52,271 --> 00:12:52,838 ON INSOLIDUS. 382 00:12:52,838 --> 00:12:54,173 I MEAN ON THE EARTH. 383 00:12:54,173 --> 00:12:57,610 WE DON'T KNOW IF THE SYSTEMS ON 384 00:12:57,610 --> 00:12:58,577 INSOLIDUS LOOK LIKE THIS, BUT 385 00:12:58,577 --> 00:13:00,412 THIS IS AN EXAMPLE FROM THE 386 00:13:00,412 --> 00:13:00,746 EARTH. 387 00:13:00,746 --> 00:13:02,181 THESE VENTS ON THE EARTH SUPPORT 388 00:13:02,181 --> 00:13:05,317 TEAMING COMMUNITIES OF ORGANISMS 389 00:13:05,317 --> 00:13:07,419 ANCHORED BY MICROBES THAT FIELD 390 00:13:07,419 --> 00:13:09,622 ON CHEMICAL ENERGY RATHER THAN 391 00:13:09,622 --> 00:13:09,989 SUNLIGHT. 392 00:13:09,989 --> 00:13:10,990 AN IMPORTANT REACTION AT THE 393 00:13:10,990 --> 00:13:15,461 BASE OF THE FOOD CHAIN IS CALLED 394 00:13:15,461 --> 00:13:16,262 METHANA GENESIS. 395 00:13:16,262 --> 00:13:19,565 THIS IS WHERE THEY COMBINE 396 00:13:19,565 --> 00:13:22,101 HYDROGEN WITH CARBON DIOXIDE TO 397 00:13:22,101 --> 00:13:24,470 FORM METHANE AND THEY GET A JOLT 398 00:13:24,470 --> 00:13:25,604 OF ENERGY OUT OF THE PROCESS. 399 00:13:25,604 --> 00:13:28,607 THEY USE IT TO SYNTHESIZE SOME 400 00:13:28,607 --> 00:13:30,543 OF THE MOLECULES SUCH AS SUGAR 401 00:13:30,543 --> 00:13:31,710 MOLECULES. WHAT IS INTRIGUING 402 00:13:31,710 --> 00:13:33,546 ABOUT THE DATA AT INSOLIDUS WITH 403 00:13:33,546 --> 00:13:34,847 THE HYDROGEN DETECTION IS THAT 404 00:13:34,847 --> 00:13:36,315 WE ARE NOW ABLE TO DETERMINE HOW 405 00:13:36,315 --> 00:13:39,118 MUCH ENERGY WOULD BE AVAILABLE 406 00:13:39,118 --> 00:13:43,756 FROM THE METHANAGENERAL 'TIS 407 00:13:43,756 --> 00:13:46,959 REACTION AT -- GENESIS REACTION. 408 00:13:46,959 --> 00:13:48,761 THIS IS A KEY STEP TOWARD 409 00:13:48,761 --> 00:13:50,563 UNDERSTANDING THE HABITABILITY 410 00:13:50,563 --> 00:13:51,897 OF INSOLIDUS. 411 00:13:51,897 --> 00:13:53,098 >> WELL CHRIS, DO YOU THINK 412 00:13:53,098 --> 00:13:55,000 THERE COULD BE MICROBES OR EVEN 413 00:13:55,000 --> 00:13:57,436 SHRIMP IN THE OCEAN ON 414 00:13:57,436 --> 00:13:57,836 INSOLIDUS? 415 00:13:57,836 --> 00:13:58,737 >> WELL THAT WOULD BE WONDERFUL, 416 00:13:58,737 --> 00:14:02,107 LINDA, BUT WE HAVEN'T DISCOVERED 417 00:14:02,107 --> 00:14:05,044 ORGANISMS ON INSOLIDUS, BUT I AM 418 00:14:05,044 --> 00:14:08,581 ENCOURAGED BY THE GEOCHEMICAL 419 00:14:08,581 --> 00:14:10,182 DATA WHICH COULD ALLOW FOR THIS 420 00:14:10,182 --> 00:14:10,616 POSSIBILITY. 421 00:14:10,616 --> 00:14:11,951 >> WELL THANK YOU VERY MUCH. 422 00:14:11,951 --> 00:14:13,786 WHEN CASINI WAS FIRST BUILT, WE 423 00:14:13,786 --> 00:14:15,387 NEVER THOUGHT WE WOULD SEE AN 424 00:14:15,387 --> 00:14:17,823 ACTIVE OCEAN WORLD LIKE 425 00:14:17,823 --> 00:14:19,491 INSOLIDUS AT SATURN. 426 00:14:19,491 --> 00:14:21,660 SO, CASINI CAN LOOK FOR 427 00:14:21,660 --> 00:14:22,428 HABITABILITY BUT WE DON'T HAVE 428 00:14:22,428 --> 00:14:23,862 THE INSTRUMENTS TO LOOK FOR 429 00:14:23,862 --> 00:14:24,997 LIFE. 430 00:14:24,997 --> 00:14:27,600 WE HAVE COME AS FAR AS WE CAN 431 00:14:27,600 --> 00:14:27,866 GO. 432 00:14:27,866 --> 00:14:29,702 WHAT REMAINS FOR A FUTURE 433 00:14:29,702 --> 00:14:31,537 MISSION IS TO DETECT LIFE AT 434 00:14:31,537 --> 00:14:31,937 INSOLIDUS. 435 00:14:31,937 --> 00:14:33,839 AND THE CASINI TEAM IS SO 436 00:14:33,839 --> 00:14:35,074 EXCITED ABOUT THESE NEW FINDINGS 437 00:14:35,074 --> 00:14:36,475 AND SO MARY, WHY DON'T YOU PUT 438 00:14:36,475 --> 00:14:37,876 THIS IN A BROADER CONTEXT FOR 439 00:14:37,876 --> 00:14:39,144 US. 440 00:14:39,144 --> 00:14:40,679 >> THANK YOU, LINDA. 441 00:14:40,679 --> 00:14:42,214 WELL FIRST OF ALL, CHRIS, I 442 00:14:42,214 --> 00:14:43,782 RECOGNIZE THAT FOOTAGE FROM ONE 443 00:14:43,782 --> 00:14:46,819 OF THE NASA RESEARCHERS, CHRIS 444 00:14:46,819 --> 00:14:48,320 GERMAN, EXPLORING THE EAST 445 00:14:48,320 --> 00:14:50,189 PACIFIC RISE WHICH WAS ACTUALLY 446 00:14:50,189 --> 00:14:52,191 A HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM VERY CLOSE 447 00:14:52,191 --> 00:14:54,994 TO THE ORIGINAL OBSERVATION 40 448 00:14:54,994 --> 00:15:01,367 YEARS AGO AT THE GALLAPAGOS 449 00:15:01,367 --> 00:15:03,035 RIFT. 450 00:15:03,035 --> 00:15:04,703 WHILE WE DON'T UNDERSTAND WHAT 451 00:15:04,703 --> 00:15:07,840 THE STRUCTURES ARE AND WE WON'T 452 00:15:07,840 --> 00:15:09,208 KNOW UNTIL WE GET INTO THE 453 00:15:09,208 --> 00:15:11,043 OCEANS, CERTAINLY THIS SUGGESTS 454 00:15:11,043 --> 00:15:12,911 A SIGNIFICANT AMOUNT OF 455 00:15:12,911 --> 00:15:13,679 HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY. 456 00:15:13,679 --> 00:15:15,414 SUCH A STRONG SIGNAL OF 457 00:15:15,414 --> 00:15:15,781 HYDROGEN. 458 00:15:15,781 --> 00:15:17,383 AND THIS HYDROGEN IS A GOOD 459 00:15:17,383 --> 00:15:19,785 SOURCE OF CHEMICAL ENERGY TO 460 00:15:19,785 --> 00:15:21,620 SUPPORT LIFE. 461 00:15:21,620 --> 00:15:22,321 NOW WHAT ELSE HAVE WE BEEN 462 00:15:22,321 --> 00:15:23,255 THINKING ABOUT THAT LIFE NEEDS? 463 00:15:23,255 --> 00:15:25,224 I HAVE A FIGURE HERE TO GO OVER 464 00:15:25,224 --> 00:15:27,059 SORT OF THE TRIAD OF WHAT WE 465 00:15:27,059 --> 00:15:27,826 NEED FOR LIFE. 466 00:15:27,826 --> 00:15:29,495 SO CAN I HAVE THE FIGURE PLEASE? 467 00:15:29,495 --> 00:15:31,630 SO OF COURSE YOU KNOW WE NEED 468 00:15:31,630 --> 00:15:31,964 WATER. 469 00:15:31,964 --> 00:15:33,532 AND HERE WE ARE AT OCEAN WORLDS. 470 00:15:33,532 --> 00:15:35,567 SO, WE HAVE THE WATER. 471 00:15:35,567 --> 00:15:37,636 WE NEED CHEMICAL ELEMENTS THAT 472 00:15:37,636 --> 00:15:39,138 CAN MAKE THE BUILDING BLOCKS 473 00:15:39,138 --> 00:15:41,607 THAT GO INTO MAKING CELLS AND 474 00:15:41,607 --> 00:15:43,542 PROVIDE MOLECULES FOR 475 00:15:43,542 --> 00:15:43,942 METABOLISM. 476 00:15:43,942 --> 00:15:46,745 WE NEED CARBON, HYDROGEN, 477 00:15:46,745 --> 00:15:48,981 NITROGEN, OXYGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND 478 00:15:48,981 --> 00:15:49,982 SULFUR WHICH ARE DOWN IN THE 479 00:15:49,982 --> 00:15:51,383 LOWER LEFT OF THE TRIANGLE. 480 00:15:51,383 --> 00:15:53,152 HERE WE GET TO CHECK OFF ANOTHER 481 00:15:53,152 --> 00:15:53,419 BOX. 482 00:15:53,419 --> 00:15:55,254 WE HAVE FOUND ENERGY TO SUPPORT 483 00:15:55,254 --> 00:15:55,621 LIFE. 484 00:15:55,621 --> 00:15:58,023 HYDROGEN GASPRO VIVES THAT 485 00:15:58,023 --> 00:15:59,758 ENERGY -- GAS PROVIDES THAT 486 00:15:59,758 --> 00:16:00,092 ENERGY. 487 00:16:00,092 --> 00:16:02,194 NOW WE NEED IT SEE IF INSOLIDUS 488 00:16:02,194 --> 00:16:03,729 HAD ENOUGH TIME OR ANY OF THE 489 00:16:03,729 --> 00:16:05,497 OTHER SYSTEMS IN THIS WORLD HAD 490 00:16:05,497 --> 00:16:07,833 ENOUGH TIME TO EVOLVE LIFE AND 491 00:16:07,833 --> 00:16:10,002 HAVE LIFE MAKE ITS IMPRINT ON 492 00:16:10,002 --> 00:16:10,869 ITS OCEAN. 493 00:16:10,869 --> 00:16:12,838 SO NOW WE HAVE ANOTHER 494 00:16:12,838 --> 00:16:13,906 OBSERVATION THAT KIND OF 495 00:16:13,906 --> 00:16:15,374 CONNECTS THE WORLDS AND IS 496 00:16:15,374 --> 00:16:16,909 RELATED TO WHAT WE JUST HEARD 497 00:16:16,909 --> 00:16:18,444 ABOUT AND JIM'S GOING TO TELL 498 00:16:18,444 --> 00:16:19,445 YOU ABOUT THIS. 499 00:16:19,445 --> 00:16:21,180 >> SO IN DEED, THE NEXT 500 00:16:21,180 --> 00:16:22,614 DISCOVERY WE WANT TO TALK ABOUT, 501 00:16:22,614 --> 00:16:25,617 WHICH IS ALSO COMING OUT THIS 502 00:16:25,617 --> 00:16:27,152 WEEK IN OUR SCIENCE JOURNALS IS 503 00:16:27,152 --> 00:16:34,793 FROM THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE. 504 00:16:34,793 --> 00:16:36,528 IT'S BEEN OBSERVING EUROPEA FOR 505 00:16:36,528 --> 00:16:37,196 MANY YEARS. 506 00:16:37,196 --> 00:16:41,834 SO, LET'S GO TO GODDARD SPACE 507 00:16:41,834 --> 00:16:44,169 CENTER AND TALK TO WILLIAM 508 00:16:44,169 --> 00:16:44,503 SPARKS. 509 00:16:44,503 --> 00:16:46,038 BILL, GIVE US A LITTLE 510 00:16:46,038 --> 00:16:48,440 BACKGROUND ON WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT 511 00:16:48,440 --> 00:16:49,074 EUROPEA. 512 00:16:49,074 --> 00:16:52,144 >> EUROPEA IS ONE OF THE FOUR 513 00:16:52,144 --> 00:16:54,413 MAJOR MOONS OF JUPITER. 514 00:16:54,413 --> 00:16:56,415 ABOUT THE SAME SIZE AS OUR OWN 515 00:16:56,415 --> 00:16:58,851 MOON BUT LOOKS VERY DIFFERENT. 516 00:16:58,851 --> 00:17:00,719 IT HAS A SMOOTH BRIGHT WHITE 517 00:17:00,719 --> 00:17:04,857 SURFACE COVERED IN DARK 518 00:17:04,857 --> 00:17:05,224 FRACTURES. 519 00:17:05,224 --> 00:17:06,525 THE REASON FOR THAT AND WHAT 520 00:17:06,525 --> 00:17:08,560 MAKES EUROPA SO INTERESTING IS 521 00:17:08,560 --> 00:17:10,696 THAT IT'S THOUGHT TO BE ENGULFED 522 00:17:10,696 --> 00:17:12,965 BY A GLOBAL OCEAN UNDER A THICK 523 00:17:12,965 --> 00:17:13,565 CRUST OF ICE. 524 00:17:13,565 --> 00:17:15,934 UNTIL FACT, IT'S GOT TWICE AS 525 00:17:15,934 --> 00:17:17,503 MUCH OCEAN AS PLANET EARTH. 526 00:17:17,503 --> 00:17:19,605 IF WE HAVE A SALTY OCEAN IN 527 00:17:19,605 --> 00:17:22,007 CONTACT WITH A ROCKY CORE AND 528 00:17:22,007 --> 00:17:23,842 ENERGY FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES 529 00:17:23,842 --> 00:17:25,411 AS WE JUST HEARD FROM MARY, WE 530 00:17:25,411 --> 00:17:27,413 HAVE MANY OF THE INGREDIENTS 531 00:17:27,413 --> 00:17:28,680 THOUGHT TO BE NECESSARY FOR 532 00:17:28,680 --> 00:17:34,219 LIFE. 533 00:17:34,219 --> 00:17:35,387 >> YOUR OBSERVATIONS FROM 534 00:17:35,387 --> 00:17:36,855 HUBBLE, WHAT ARE YOU NOW SEEING 535 00:17:36,855 --> 00:17:39,491 THAT'S IMPORTANT TO OUR 536 00:17:39,491 --> 00:17:43,028 UNDERSTANDING OF HABITABILITY ON 537 00:17:43,028 --> 00:17:43,429 EUROPA? 538 00:17:43,429 --> 00:17:45,230 >> IN 2014, WE USED THE HUBBLE 539 00:17:45,230 --> 00:17:46,465 AND DETECTED EVIDENCE OF WHAT 540 00:17:46,465 --> 00:17:48,801 ARE PROBABLY WATER VAPOR PLUMES 541 00:17:48,801 --> 00:17:51,703 EMERGING FROM THE SURFACE OF 542 00:17:51,703 --> 00:17:52,037 EUROPA. 543 00:17:52,037 --> 00:17:52,738 THAT'S IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT 544 00:17:52,738 --> 00:17:54,740 COULD BE GIVING US ACCESS TO 545 00:17:54,740 --> 00:17:55,941 SURFACE LIQUID WATER WITHOUT 546 00:17:55,941 --> 00:17:57,709 HAVING TO DRILL THROUGH MILES OF 547 00:17:57,709 --> 00:17:58,010 ICE. 548 00:17:58,010 --> 00:18:01,046 IN 2016, THE NEW OBSERVATIONS 549 00:18:01,046 --> 00:18:03,148 THAT WE ARE JUST PUBLISHING, WE 550 00:18:03,148 --> 00:18:05,551 SAW SIMILAR CANDIDATE, ALMOST 551 00:18:05,551 --> 00:18:07,619 IDENTICAL IN APPEARANCE AND AT 552 00:18:07,619 --> 00:18:10,756 THE IDENTICAL LOCATION TO ONE OF 553 00:18:10,756 --> 00:18:12,224 THE 2014 CANDIDATES. 554 00:18:12,224 --> 00:18:14,560 IT'S VERY IMPORTANT IN AN 555 00:18:14,560 --> 00:18:16,895 INTERMITTENT PHENOMENON, TO 556 00:18:16,895 --> 00:18:17,896 ESTABLISH REPEATABILITY. 557 00:18:17,896 --> 00:18:20,399 IT GIVES US MORE FAITH IN THE 558 00:18:20,399 --> 00:18:20,799 OBSERVATION. 559 00:18:20,799 --> 00:18:22,334 THE OTHER THING IT ALLOWS US TO 560 00:18:22,334 --> 00:18:25,204 DO GIVEN THE POSITION OF THE 561 00:18:25,204 --> 00:18:27,473 CANDIDATE ON EUROPA IS TO LOOK 562 00:18:27,473 --> 00:18:29,208 WITH MORE FIDELITY AT THAT 563 00:18:29,208 --> 00:18:30,309 POSITION AND SEE WHAT ELSE WE 564 00:18:30,309 --> 00:18:30,976 CAN FIND THERE. 565 00:18:30,976 --> 00:18:33,879 IF WE JUST LOOK AT THE MAP OF 566 00:18:33,879 --> 00:18:35,647 EUROPA, WE DON'T SEE ANYTHING 567 00:18:35,647 --> 00:18:37,683 PARTICULARLY REMARKABLE ABOUT 568 00:18:37,683 --> 00:18:39,818 THE EXACT LOCATION OF THIS PLUME 569 00:18:39,818 --> 00:18:42,087 CANDIDATE SHOWN BY THE GREEN 570 00:18:42,087 --> 00:18:42,421 ELIPSE. 571 00:18:42,421 --> 00:18:45,624 BUT IF WE LOOK BACK TO THE 572 00:18:45,624 --> 00:18:48,060 GALLILEO DATA, GALLILEO IN THE 573 00:18:48,060 --> 00:18:50,128 1990s PUBLISHED A THERMAL 574 00:18:50,128 --> 00:18:50,529 IMAGE. 575 00:18:50,529 --> 00:18:52,164 RIGHT AT THE PEAK OF THE THERMAL 576 00:18:52,164 --> 00:18:54,366 IMAGE, THAT'S WHERE THE PLUME 577 00:18:54,366 --> 00:18:55,434 CANDIDATE IS. 578 00:18:55,434 --> 00:18:58,003 THIS HOT SPOT ON THE SURFACE OF 579 00:18:58,003 --> 00:18:59,471 EUROPA, ON THE EUROPA NIGHT 580 00:18:59,471 --> 00:19:00,906 SIDE, WAS IDENTIFIED AT THE TIME 581 00:19:00,906 --> 00:19:05,911 AS A THERMAL ANOMALY AND IT'S 582 00:19:05,911 --> 00:19:07,246 SITTING RIGHT ON TOP OF THE 583 00:19:07,246 --> 00:19:08,847 POSITION OF OUR PLUME CANDIDATE. 584 00:19:08,847 --> 00:19:09,481 >> BILL, WOW. 585 00:19:09,481 --> 00:19:10,649 THAT'S FANTASTIC. 586 00:19:10,649 --> 00:19:13,485 YOU KNOW, WE DIDN'T KNOW WHEN 587 00:19:13,485 --> 00:19:15,287 GALLILEO WAS FLYING BY EUROPA 588 00:19:15,287 --> 00:19:17,623 HOW THE OCEAN COULD POSSIBLY 589 00:19:17,623 --> 00:19:19,424 COMMUNICATE WITH THE SURFACE. 590 00:19:19,424 --> 00:19:21,760 AND NOW, THESE PLUMES THAT 591 00:19:21,760 --> 00:19:24,630 HUBBLE MAY BE OBSERVING IS 592 00:19:24,630 --> 00:19:27,766 GIVING US THAT TANTALIZING 593 00:19:27,766 --> 00:19:32,771 GLIMPSE, SOMETHING THAT WE SEE 594 00:19:32,771 --> 00:19:34,206 ON INSOLIDUS MAY BE GOING ON. 595 00:19:34,206 --> 00:19:35,440 CAN YOU TELL US MORE ABOUT HOW 596 00:19:35,440 --> 00:19:37,442 THE PLUMES AND HOT SPOT MIGHT 597 00:19:37,442 --> 00:19:38,610 RELATE TO EACH OTHER? 598 00:19:38,610 --> 00:19:40,412 >> YES, IT'S REALLY INTRIGUING. 599 00:19:40,412 --> 00:19:42,314 QUITE ASTONISHING IN FACT JUST 600 00:19:42,314 --> 00:19:43,982 TO SEE THE COINCIDENCE OF THE 601 00:19:43,982 --> 00:19:46,218 TWO. 602 00:19:46,218 --> 00:19:47,119 BUT IT WASN'T AN ACCIDENT THAT 603 00:19:47,119 --> 00:19:49,254 WE LOOKED FOR THE THERMAL 604 00:19:49,254 --> 00:19:49,721 IMAGING. 605 00:19:49,721 --> 00:19:54,493 WE DID IT TO FIND -- AS WE ALL 606 00:19:54,493 --> 00:19:56,028 KNOW, THE PLUMES OF INSOLIDUS 607 00:19:56,028 --> 00:19:58,897 ARE ASSOCIATED WITH A HEAT 608 00:19:58,897 --> 00:19:59,231 SOURCE. 609 00:19:59,231 --> 00:20:01,199 AND ITS VERY DISTINCTIVE 610 00:20:01,199 --> 00:20:01,567 SIGNATURE. 611 00:20:01,567 --> 00:20:02,901 WE LOOKED TO SEE IF WE COULD 612 00:20:02,901 --> 00:20:05,671 FIND THERMAL IMAGING OF THE 613 00:20:05,671 --> 00:20:06,405 SURFACE OF EUROPA. 614 00:20:06,405 --> 00:20:07,139 AND WE DID. 615 00:20:07,139 --> 00:20:10,342 THE PEAK HOTTEST SPOT ON THE 616 00:20:10,342 --> 00:20:11,743 NIGHT SIDE WAS RIGHT WHERE OUR 617 00:20:11,743 --> 00:20:13,011 PLUME CANDIDATE WAS. 618 00:20:13,011 --> 00:20:14,613 THERE ARE TWO POSSIBLE 619 00:20:14,613 --> 00:20:16,114 EXPLANATIONS FOR A CAUSAL 620 00:20:16,114 --> 00:20:16,648 CONNECTION. 621 00:20:16,648 --> 00:20:18,650 OBVIOUSLY COINCIDENCES CAN JUST 622 00:20:18,650 --> 00:20:21,053 OCCUR BUT THERE ARE INSTANCES TO 623 00:20:21,053 --> 00:20:22,554 THINK THERE'S A CAUSAL 624 00:20:22,554 --> 00:20:22,988 RELATIONSHIP. 625 00:20:22,988 --> 00:20:24,222 ONE POSSIBILITY IS IF THERE'S 626 00:20:24,222 --> 00:20:25,757 LIQUID WATER AT THE DEPTH BELOW 627 00:20:25,757 --> 00:20:27,659 THE ICE SURFACE AND THE LIQUID 628 00:20:27,659 --> 00:20:30,529 WATER IS OBVIOUSLY WARMER, THE 629 00:20:30,529 --> 00:20:31,863 HEAT CAN FLOW UP THROUGH THE ICE 630 00:20:31,863 --> 00:20:34,666 AND CAUSE A THERMAL ANOMALY AND 631 00:20:34,666 --> 00:20:35,834 CRACKS IN THE ICE COULD GIVE US 632 00:20:35,834 --> 00:20:36,735 THE PLUME. 633 00:20:36,735 --> 00:20:38,103 CONVERSELY, THE PLUMES 634 00:20:38,103 --> 00:20:40,138 THEMSELVES COULD SIMPLY BE 635 00:20:40,138 --> 00:20:43,976 VENTING WATER VAPOR HIGH INTO 636 00:20:43,976 --> 00:20:46,011 SPACE FROM THE EUROPA SURFACE. 637 00:20:46,011 --> 00:20:48,747 WE SEE PLUMES RISING TO 100 638 00:20:48,747 --> 00:20:50,449 KILOMETERS, 60 MILES, AND WE 639 00:20:50,449 --> 00:20:52,217 WOULD EXPECT THE WATER VAPOR TO 640 00:20:52,217 --> 00:20:53,852 SPREAD OUT OVER A MUCH BIGGER 641 00:20:53,852 --> 00:20:55,721 AREA THAN THAT. 642 00:20:55,721 --> 00:20:57,856 WE AREN'T AT ESCAPE VELOCITY SO 643 00:20:57,856 --> 00:20:59,424 IT'S GOT TO COME BACK DOWN. 644 00:20:59,424 --> 00:21:01,293 IF A FINE MIST OF WATER VAPOR 645 00:21:01,293 --> 00:21:02,628 RAINS BACK DOWN ON TO THE 646 00:21:02,628 --> 00:21:03,795 SURFACE, IT CAN CHANGE THE 647 00:21:03,795 --> 00:21:04,763 THERMAL CHARACTER OF THAT 648 00:21:04,763 --> 00:21:06,698 SURFACE AND ALLOW IT TO RETAIN 649 00:21:06,698 --> 00:21:07,399 HEAT LONGER. 650 00:21:07,399 --> 00:21:08,834 SO, INSTEAD OF HEAT COMING UP 651 00:21:08,834 --> 00:21:10,302 FROM BELOW, IT COULD BE HEAT 652 00:21:10,302 --> 00:21:13,905 FROM ABOVE BEING SLOWLY 653 00:21:13,905 --> 00:21:15,807 RERADIATED DURING THE EUROPA 654 00:21:15,807 --> 00:21:16,241 NIGHTTIME. 655 00:21:16,241 --> 00:21:18,844 SO, IT'S VERY INTRIGUING PAIR OF 656 00:21:18,844 --> 00:21:19,177 RESULTS. 657 00:21:19,177 --> 00:21:20,812 WE DISCOVERED A REPEATING PLUME 658 00:21:20,812 --> 00:21:22,014 CANDIDATE AND WHEN WE LOOKED AT 659 00:21:22,014 --> 00:21:23,949 THE GALLILEO DATA, WE FOUND A 660 00:21:23,949 --> 00:21:25,751 POSITION OF THAT REPEATING PLUME 661 00:21:25,751 --> 00:21:26,918 CANDIDATE THAT WAS RIGHT AT THE 662 00:21:26,918 --> 00:21:29,821 POSITION OF A THERMAL ANOMALY. 663 00:21:29,821 --> 00:21:31,890 WE LOOK FORWARD TO THE EUROPA 664 00:21:31,890 --> 00:21:32,924 CLIPPER MISSION WHICH JIM IS 665 00:21:32,924 --> 00:21:36,395 GOING TO TELL US ABOUT AND THAT 666 00:21:36,395 --> 00:21:37,829 WILL CHARACTERIZE THIS AND OTHER 667 00:21:37,829 --> 00:21:39,064 AREAS IN GREAT DETAIL. 668 00:21:39,064 --> 00:21:41,900 >> YOU KNOW, THE CASINI 669 00:21:41,900 --> 00:21:43,035 OBSERVATIONS THAT INSOLIDUS AND 670 00:21:43,035 --> 00:21:45,070 THE HUBBLE OBSERVATIONS AT 671 00:21:45,070 --> 00:21:46,538 EUROPA TELLS YOU WE ARE USING 672 00:21:46,538 --> 00:21:47,873 EVERYTHING IN OUR ARSENAL TO 673 00:21:47,873 --> 00:21:49,608 PROBE THESE NEW OCEAN WORLDS 674 00:21:49,608 --> 00:21:50,842 THAT WE HAVE DISCOVERED. 675 00:21:50,842 --> 00:21:53,812 THIS IS TRULY A REALLY EXCITING 676 00:21:53,812 --> 00:21:54,413 TIME. 677 00:21:54,413 --> 00:21:56,581 CASINI UNFORTUNATELY IS NEAR ITS 678 00:21:56,581 --> 00:21:59,317 END . IT WILL BE PLUNGED INTO 679 00:21:59,317 --> 00:22:01,153 THE ATMOSPHERE OF SATURN, IT 680 00:22:01,153 --> 00:22:03,388 IT'S RUNNING OUT OF FUEL, ON THE 681 00:22:03,388 --> 00:22:04,456 15th OF SEPTEMBER. 682 00:22:04,456 --> 00:22:06,425 AND SO THESE, IN DEED, ARE THE 683 00:22:06,425 --> 00:22:08,393 LAST DISCOVERIES THAT WE ARE 684 00:22:08,393 --> 00:22:11,530 TALKING ABOUT FROM CASINI AS IT 685 00:22:11,530 --> 00:22:12,831 RELATES TO INSOLIDUS. 686 00:22:12,831 --> 00:22:14,232 THE NEXT BIG MISSION THAT WE ARE 687 00:22:14,232 --> 00:22:16,868 WORKING ON IS CALLED THE EUROPA 688 00:22:16,868 --> 00:22:17,769 CLIPPER AND THIS PARTICULAR 689 00:22:17,769 --> 00:22:21,473 MISSION IS GOING TO INSOLIDUS. 690 00:22:21,473 --> 00:22:23,008 THERE ARE NINE MAJOR INSTRUMENTS 691 00:22:23,008 --> 00:22:23,508 ON IT. 692 00:22:23,508 --> 00:22:24,843 AND THESE DISCOVERIES ARE COMING 693 00:22:24,843 --> 00:22:26,945 AT JUST THE PERFECT TIME. 694 00:22:26,945 --> 00:22:29,347 IT ENABLES US TO MAKE THE RIGHT 695 00:22:29,347 --> 00:22:31,783 SET OF OBSERVATIONS THAT CAN 696 00:22:31,783 --> 00:22:34,252 TELL US MUCH MORE ABOUT THESE 697 00:22:34,252 --> 00:22:35,554 OCEAN WORLDS. 698 00:22:35,554 --> 00:22:37,622 EUROPA IN PARTICULAR. 699 00:22:37,622 --> 00:22:40,492 CAN I HAVE MY VIDEO, PLEASE? 700 00:22:40,492 --> 00:22:42,894 THE EUROPA CLIPPER WILL ORBIT 701 00:22:42,894 --> 00:22:46,898 JUPITER, BUT IT MAKES VERY CLOSE 702 00:22:46,898 --> 00:22:48,633 FLY-BYES OF EUROPA. 703 00:22:48,633 --> 00:22:52,871 IT HAS INSTRUMENTS LIKE THE 704 00:22:52,871 --> 00:22:54,005 MAGNETOMETER, ONCE AGAIN, THAT 705 00:22:54,005 --> 00:22:55,607 WILL MAKE MEASUREMENTS OF ITS 706 00:22:55,607 --> 00:22:55,907 OCEAN. 707 00:22:55,907 --> 00:22:59,077 IT ALSO HAS AN ICE-PENETRATING 708 00:22:59,077 --> 00:22:59,478 RADAR. 709 00:22:59,478 --> 00:23:01,880 THIS RADAR WILL TELL US HOW 710 00:23:01,880 --> 00:23:03,982 THICK OR THIN THESE ICE SHELLS 711 00:23:03,982 --> 00:23:05,751 ARE AND HOW CLOSE THEN THE OCEAN 712 00:23:05,751 --> 00:23:07,385 MIGHT BE TO CRACKS. 713 00:23:07,385 --> 00:23:09,287 THE NEXT MAJOR INSTRUMENT THAT 714 00:23:09,287 --> 00:23:11,189 IT HAS IS THERMAL IMAGING GOING 715 00:23:11,189 --> 00:23:13,925 BACK TO WHAT WE LEARNED FROM 716 00:23:13,925 --> 00:23:15,961 INSOLIDUS -- HOW HOT ARE THESE 717 00:23:15,961 --> 00:23:16,261 AREAS? 718 00:23:16,261 --> 00:23:17,562 ARE THERE CRACKS THERE LIKE WE 719 00:23:17,562 --> 00:23:20,832 SEE NOW WITH THE PLUMES FROM THE 720 00:23:20,832 --> 00:23:23,902 HUBBLE OBSERVATIONS AND THE HOT 721 00:23:23,902 --> 00:23:26,238 SPOTS STILL BEING HOT FROM 722 00:23:26,238 --> 00:23:28,240 GALLILEO OBSERVATIONS MORE THAN 723 00:23:28,240 --> 00:23:29,875 15 OR SO YEARS AGO? 724 00:23:29,875 --> 00:23:33,512 IN ADDITION TO THAT, WE HAVE A 725 00:23:33,512 --> 00:23:34,913 U.V. SPECTROMETER. 726 00:23:34,913 --> 00:23:36,982 THIS IMAGER IS GOING TO BE THE 727 00:23:36,982 --> 00:23:37,716 PLUME FINDER. 728 00:23:37,716 --> 00:23:39,885 SO AS WE GO BACK, ORBIT OUT AWAY 729 00:23:39,885 --> 00:23:41,920 FROM JUPITER, WE ARE GOING TO 730 00:23:41,920 --> 00:23:42,988 LOOK BACK AT INSOLIDUS. 731 00:23:42,988 --> 00:23:44,289 WE WILL BE LOOKING FOR THOSE 732 00:23:44,289 --> 00:23:45,624 PLUMES AND THEN DIVING BACK IN 733 00:23:45,624 --> 00:23:47,826 AND HOPEFULLY, IF EVERYTHING 734 00:23:47,826 --> 00:23:50,729 WORKS RIGHT, FLYING THROUGH THE 735 00:23:50,729 --> 00:23:53,932 PLUMES MUCH LIKE CASINI HAS DONE 736 00:23:53,932 --> 00:23:54,766 AT INSOLIDUS. 737 00:23:54,766 --> 00:23:55,934 BUT, NOW WE'LL HAVE THE RIGHT 738 00:23:55,934 --> 00:23:59,237 SET OF OBSERVATIONS TO MAKE. 739 00:23:59,237 --> 00:24:01,606 ON THAT SPACE CRAFT, THE EUROPA 740 00:24:01,606 --> 00:24:03,275 CLIPPER WILL HAVE AN ADVANCED 741 00:24:03,275 --> 00:24:06,178 MASS SPECTROMETER, ACTUALLY 742 00:24:06,178 --> 00:24:08,280 HUNTER WAITE IS OUR PRINCIPLE 743 00:24:08,280 --> 00:24:09,080 INVESTIGATOR FOR THAT 744 00:24:09,080 --> 00:24:10,515 INSTRUMENT. 745 00:24:10,515 --> 00:24:14,252 SO, WHAT A FANTASTIC TIME COMING 746 00:24:14,252 --> 00:24:14,586 UP. 747 00:24:14,586 --> 00:24:16,655 THESE OBSERVATIONS ARE REALLY 748 00:24:16,655 --> 00:24:18,490 INFORMING US OF MAJOR THINGS 749 00:24:18,490 --> 00:24:20,292 HAPPENING IN THESE OCEAN WORLDS 750 00:24:20,292 --> 00:24:22,427 RIGHT NOW . WHAT I REALLY WANT 751 00:24:22,427 --> 00:24:24,729 YOU TO WALK AWAY WITH IS -- WE 752 00:24:24,729 --> 00:24:26,531 ARE PUSHING THE FRONTIERS. 753 00:24:26,531 --> 00:24:29,601 WE ARE FINDING NEW ENVIRONMENTS. 754 00:24:29,601 --> 00:24:32,003 WE ARE LOOKING IN A WAY THAT WE 755 00:24:32,003 --> 00:24:34,239 HAVE NEVER THOUGHT POSSIBLE 756 00:24:34,239 --> 00:24:37,242 BEFORE FOR ENVIRONMENTS IN OUR 757 00:24:37,242 --> 00:24:39,544 SOLAR SYSTEM WHICH MAY HARBOR 758 00:24:39,544 --> 00:24:40,979 LIFE TODAY. 759 00:24:40,979 --> 00:24:42,747 WITH THAT, LET ME GIVE IT BACK 760 00:24:42,747 --> 00:24:46,952 TO FELICIA. 761 00:24:46,952 --> 00:24:47,619 >> THANKS, JIM. 762 00:24:47,619 --> 00:24:51,656 NOW WE WILL GO INTO A Q. AND A. 763 00:24:51,656 --> 00:24:51,990 SESSION. 764 00:24:51,990 --> 00:24:54,092 USE THE HASHTAG ASK NASA FOR 765 00:24:54,092 --> 00:24:54,960 THOSE ONLINE. 766 00:24:54,960 --> 00:24:56,394 FOR THOSE IN THE ROOM, IF YOU 767 00:24:56,394 --> 00:24:57,762 WOULD LIKE TO ASK A QUESTION, 768 00:24:57,762 --> 00:24:59,030 PLEASE RAISE YOUR HAND. 769 00:24:59,030 --> 00:25:00,532 IF YOU ARE PRESS, PLEASE STATE 770 00:25:00,532 --> 00:25:01,933 YOUR NAME AND AFFILIATION. 771 00:25:01,933 --> 00:25:02,868 LET'S START WITH QUESTIONS FROM 772 00:25:02,868 --> 00:25:06,638 THE ROOM. 773 00:25:06,638 --> 00:25:06,938 OK. 774 00:25:06,938 --> 00:25:08,106 WELL, BEFORE WE GO TO QUESTIONS 775 00:25:08,106 --> 00:25:09,975 FROM THE ROOM, LET'S GO AHEAD TO 776 00:25:09,975 --> 00:25:10,842 THE PHONE LINES. 777 00:25:10,842 --> 00:25:13,311 FIRST WE HAVE CAMILLE CARLISLE 778 00:25:13,311 --> 00:25:14,679 FROM THE SKY AND TELESCOPE 779 00:25:14,679 --> 00:25:16,381 MAGAZINE. 780 00:25:16,381 --> 00:25:16,748 >> HI. 781 00:25:16,748 --> 00:25:18,183 CAN YOU HEAR ME? 782 00:25:18,183 --> 00:25:19,584 >> YES. 783 00:25:19,584 --> 00:25:19,985 >> OK. 784 00:25:19,985 --> 00:25:22,954 THANKS FOR TAKING MY CALL. 785 00:25:22,954 --> 00:25:23,822 TWO QUESTIONS. 786 00:25:23,822 --> 00:25:26,157 ONE, YOU MENTIONED THAT WE 787 00:25:26,157 --> 00:25:27,525 ESSENTIALLY HAVE A CALORIE COUNT 788 00:25:27,525 --> 00:25:28,994 NOW WITH THIS HYDROGEN. 789 00:25:28,994 --> 00:25:30,195 CAN YOU TELL US HOW MUCH ENERGY 790 00:25:30,195 --> 00:25:30,929 IS AVAILABLE? 791 00:25:30,929 --> 00:25:32,297 CAN YOU PUT SOME SORT OF DETAIL 792 00:25:32,297 --> 00:25:33,164 ON THAT? 793 00:25:33,164 --> 00:25:34,833 AND -- THIS IS A LOGISTICS 794 00:25:34,833 --> 00:25:35,200 QUESTION. 795 00:25:35,200 --> 00:25:36,234 MAYBE I MISSED IT. 796 00:25:36,234 --> 00:25:37,836 IS THERE A WEBSITE FOR ALL THE 797 00:25:37,836 --> 00:25:39,471 PRESS IMAGES THAT WE CAN GO TO 798 00:25:39,471 --> 00:25:41,139 AND GET THEM? 799 00:25:41,139 --> 00:25:42,707 >> SO FELICIA, CAN YOU TELL US 800 00:25:42,707 --> 00:25:43,375 THE PRESS SITE? 801 00:25:43,375 --> 00:25:48,380 AND WE WILL GO TO J.P.L. TO GET 802 00:25:48,380 --> 00:25:49,114 THE CALORIE COUNT. 803 00:25:49,114 --> 00:25:51,049 >> IF YOU WANT MORE INFORMATION, 804 00:25:51,049 --> 00:25:56,221 GO TO NASA .GOV. 805 00:25:56,221 --> 00:25:58,023 OUR PRESS RELEASE WILL BE THERE. 806 00:25:58,023 --> 00:26:01,059 I BELIEVE BY GOING TO THE J.P.L. 807 00:26:01,059 --> 00:26:02,460 SAT EARN PAGE THERE WILL BE 808 00:26:02,460 --> 00:26:02,827 MATERIALS. 809 00:26:02,827 --> 00:26:04,429 PLEASE JUST GO TO THE TWO SITES 810 00:26:04,429 --> 00:26:05,497 THAT WERE ON THE SCREEN EARLIER 811 00:26:05,497 --> 00:26:07,165 AND YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO GET 812 00:26:07,165 --> 00:26:08,300 THE MATERIALS YOU NEED. 813 00:26:08,300 --> 00:26:09,267 FOR THE SECOND PART OF THE 814 00:26:09,267 --> 00:26:14,839 QUESTION, LET'S GO TO J.P.L. 815 00:26:14,839 --> 00:26:16,174 >> IT'S AN EXCELLENT QUESTION. 816 00:26:16,174 --> 00:26:18,243 THE PLUME GAS MIXTURE FROM THE 817 00:26:18,243 --> 00:26:19,444 HYDROGEN NUMBER WE DERIVE SAN 818 00:26:19,444 --> 00:26:23,081 DIEGO EQUIVALENT TO ROUGHLY 300 819 00:26:23,081 --> 00:26:24,683 PIZZAS PER HOUR IN ITS ENERGY 820 00:26:24,683 --> 00:26:26,818 CONTENT. 821 00:26:26,818 --> 00:26:33,325 >> WHAT DOES THAT MEAN? 822 00:26:33,325 --> 00:26:34,392 >> NEXT WE HAVE ON THE PHONE 823 00:26:34,392 --> 00:26:40,632 LINES WE HAVE ERIC BERGER. 824 00:26:40,632 --> 00:26:40,999 >> HI. 825 00:26:40,999 --> 00:26:43,168 THANKS VERY MUCH FOR HAVING THIS 826 00:26:43,168 --> 00:26:43,468 CALL. 827 00:26:43,468 --> 00:26:47,238 I WAS QUESTIONED ABOUT THE PLUME 828 00:26:47,238 --> 00:26:47,739 EVIDENCE, EUROPA. 829 00:26:47,739 --> 00:26:49,341 YOU SAID YOU FOUND IT IN 2014 830 00:26:49,341 --> 00:26:51,309 AND 2016 THIS EVIDENCE OF WATER 831 00:26:51,309 --> 00:26:51,643 PLUMES. 832 00:26:51,643 --> 00:26:53,345 HOW MANY TIMES DID YOU LOOK AND 833 00:26:53,345 --> 00:26:54,346 WAS IT NOT THERE? 834 00:26:54,346 --> 00:26:56,414 I GUESS WHAT I'M TRYING TO GET 835 00:26:56,414 --> 00:26:58,583 AT, IS THERE ANY SENSE OF HOW 836 00:26:58,583 --> 00:26:59,751 INTERMITTENT THIS PLUME MIGHT BE 837 00:26:59,751 --> 00:27:01,886 IF IT DOES, IN DEED, EXIST? 838 00:27:01,886 --> 00:27:03,722 >> OF COURSE BILL NOW HAS BEEN 839 00:27:03,722 --> 00:27:06,291 ON THE, A NUMBER OF MAJOR 840 00:27:06,291 --> 00:27:07,926 OBSERVATIONS FROM HUBBLE. 841 00:27:07,926 --> 00:27:09,060 AND BILL CAN GIVE YOU THE 842 00:27:09,060 --> 00:27:13,264 ANSWER. 843 00:27:13,264 --> 00:27:13,665 >> YES. 844 00:27:13,665 --> 00:27:16,768 WE LOOKED 12 TIMES AND WE SAW IT 845 00:27:16,768 --> 00:27:18,737 TWICE IN THAT LOCATION. 846 00:27:18,737 --> 00:27:21,072 WE DID SEE SOME EVIDENCE OF 847 00:27:21,072 --> 00:27:23,641 PLUMES AROUND THE SOUTH POLE, 848 00:27:23,641 --> 00:27:25,410 POLAR REGIONS A COUPLE OF TIMES, 849 00:27:25,410 --> 00:27:25,710 TOO. 850 00:27:25,710 --> 00:27:30,048 BUT IT IT'S MUCH HARDER TO 851 00:27:30,048 --> 00:27:31,082 LOCATE THE SOURCE WHEN YOU ARE 852 00:27:31,082 --> 00:27:33,018 DOWN AT THE POLAR REGION. 853 00:27:33,018 --> 00:27:35,453 AND THERE ISN'T ANY COVERAGE BY 854 00:27:35,453 --> 00:27:36,855 GALLILEO IN THAT REGION, EITHER. 855 00:27:36,855 --> 00:27:39,657 SO, WE WERE LUCKY TO FIND THIS 856 00:27:39,657 --> 00:27:41,493 ONE THAT DID REPEAT WAS ACTUALLY 857 00:27:41,493 --> 00:27:42,894 NEAR THE EQUATOR. 858 00:27:42,894 --> 00:27:45,130 AND SO IT WAS TWICE OUT OF 12 859 00:27:45,130 --> 00:27:45,430 TIMES. 860 00:27:45,430 --> 00:27:48,266 ONE IN SIX. 861 00:27:48,266 --> 00:27:49,401 >> WOULD YOU CARE TO 862 00:27:49,401 --> 00:27:50,435 CHARACTERIZE HOW CONFIDENT YOU 863 00:27:50,435 --> 00:27:58,777 ARE THESE ARE ACTUALLY PLUMES? 864 00:27:58,777 --> 00:27:59,611 >> THE STATISTICS TELL US THAT 865 00:27:59,611 --> 00:28:02,447 JUST FROM RANDOM PHOTON 866 00:28:02,447 --> 00:28:03,915 STATISTICS, THEY ARE REAL. 867 00:28:03,915 --> 00:28:09,587 THEY ARE WHAT WE CALL FOUR SIGMA 868 00:28:09,587 --> 00:28:10,288 RESULTS. 869 00:28:10,288 --> 00:28:11,322 THAT'S NOT QUITE AS STRONG 870 00:28:11,322 --> 00:28:12,690 EVIDENCE AS YOU WOULD REALLY 871 00:28:12,690 --> 00:28:12,991 LIKE. 872 00:28:12,991 --> 00:28:15,460 YOU WOULD PREFER IT TO BE 873 00:28:15,460 --> 00:28:16,494 STRONGER THAN THAT BECAUSE AT 874 00:28:16,494 --> 00:28:17,328 THAT LEVEL THERE'S ALWAYS THE 875 00:28:17,328 --> 00:28:18,396 POSSIBILITY THAT THERE'S SOME 876 00:28:18,396 --> 00:28:20,198 SORT OF INSTRUMENTAL EFFECT THAT 877 00:28:20,198 --> 00:28:21,533 YOU DON'T KNOW ABOUT. 878 00:28:21,533 --> 00:28:25,904 WE HAVE COVERED OUR SELFS IN 879 00:28:25,904 --> 00:28:27,705 TERMS OF TRYING TO UNDERSTAND 880 00:28:27,705 --> 00:28:29,040 WHAT POSSIBLE INSTRUMENTAL 881 00:28:29,040 --> 00:28:32,477 EFFECTS COULD HAVE CAUSED THIS. 882 00:28:32,477 --> 00:28:34,412 AND EVERY SINGLE ONE THAT WE CAN 883 00:28:34,412 --> 00:28:36,081 THINK OF DOES NOT APPEAR TO BE 884 00:28:36,081 --> 00:28:37,449 CAPABLE OF DOING IT. 885 00:28:37,449 --> 00:28:39,784 SO, FOR EXAMPLE, THE TWO 886 00:28:39,784 --> 00:28:41,086 OBSERVATIONS THAT I SHOWED, 887 00:28:41,086 --> 00:28:42,887 ALTHOUGH THEY LOOK THE SAME IN 888 00:28:42,887 --> 00:28:44,422 THE SAME POSITION WHEN WE 889 00:28:44,422 --> 00:28:46,658 PROJECT THEM ON THE SKY, WHEN 890 00:28:46,658 --> 00:28:48,393 THEY WERE TAKEN WITH THE CAMERA, 891 00:28:48,393 --> 00:28:50,361 THE HUBBLE WAS IN A COMPLETELY 892 00:28:50,361 --> 00:28:52,530 DIFFERENT ORIENTATION FOR THOSE 893 00:28:52,530 --> 00:28:53,331 TWO IMAGES. 894 00:28:53,331 --> 00:28:54,799 SO THEY ARE IN COMPLETELY 895 00:28:54,799 --> 00:28:56,167 DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE CAMERA 896 00:28:56,167 --> 00:28:59,037 WITH THE TELESCOPE ROLLED AROUND 897 00:28:59,037 --> 00:29:00,939 AT A COME PLATELY DIFFERENT 898 00:29:00,939 --> 00:29:01,272 ANGLE. 899 00:29:01,272 --> 00:29:03,341 AND THAT ELIMINATES THE WHOLE 900 00:29:03,341 --> 00:29:05,643 BUNCH OF POTENTIAL SYSTEMATICS 901 00:29:05,643 --> 00:29:06,678 THAT COULD HAVE CAUSED IT. 902 00:29:06,678 --> 00:29:11,483 SO FROM THE HUBBLE PERSPECTIVE, 903 00:29:11,483 --> 00:29:13,151 WE ARE -- I WOULDN'T SAY -- IT'S 904 00:29:13,151 --> 00:29:17,188 NOT COMPLETELY UNEQUIVOCAL THE 905 00:29:17,188 --> 00:29:19,591 WAY IS IT WITH INSOLIDUS. 906 00:29:19,591 --> 00:29:20,959 WE ARE STILL AT THE LIMITS OF 907 00:29:20,959 --> 00:29:22,193 WHAT HUBBLE CAN DO, BUT WE ARE 908 00:29:22,193 --> 00:29:23,928 GROWING IN CONFIDENCE BECAUSE OF 909 00:29:23,928 --> 00:29:26,698 THE REPEAT AND IN MY CASE, I 910 00:29:26,698 --> 00:29:29,033 FIND THE CORRELATION WITH 911 00:29:29,033 --> 00:29:30,535 GALLILEO THERMAL DATA QUITE 912 00:29:30,535 --> 00:29:31,936 INTRIGUING AND QUITE COMPELLING. 913 00:29:31,936 --> 00:29:34,038 >> YOU KNOW FROM MY PERSPECTIVE 914 00:29:34,038 --> 00:29:36,374 AS BILL MENTIONED, THESE PLUMES 915 00:29:36,374 --> 00:29:38,643 ARE UP TO 50 KILOMETERS AND 916 00:29:38,643 --> 00:29:41,980 PERHAPS AS HIGH AS 100 917 00:29:41,980 --> 00:29:42,380 KILOMETERS. 918 00:29:42,380 --> 00:29:44,115 EUROPA IS THE SIZE OF OUR OWN 919 00:29:44,115 --> 00:29:44,415 MOON. 920 00:29:44,415 --> 00:29:45,850 IT'S AN ENORMOUS BODY. 921 00:29:45,850 --> 00:29:48,953 AND THEREFORE, THERE MUST BE 922 00:29:48,953 --> 00:29:50,155 ENORMOUS ENERGY TO BE ABLE TO 923 00:29:50,155 --> 00:29:52,991 LOFT THESE POTENTIAL WATER JETS 924 00:29:52,991 --> 00:29:56,361 HIGH ENOUGH FOR US TO BE ABLE TO 925 00:29:56,361 --> 00:29:58,897 OBSERVE IT FIVE ASTRONOMICAL 926 00:29:58,897 --> 00:29:59,531 UNITS AWAY. 927 00:29:59,531 --> 00:30:02,567 IT'S A REMARKABLE SET OF 928 00:30:02,567 --> 00:30:03,334 OBSERVATIONS. 929 00:30:03,334 --> 00:30:04,102 UNFORTUNATELY, YOU KNOW, IT'S 930 00:30:04,102 --> 00:30:15,513 NOT AS PERIODIC AS THE INSOLIDUS 931 00:30:15,513 --> 00:30:15,847 PLUMES. 932 00:30:15,847 --> 00:30:17,048 GOING BACK AND LOOKING 933 00:30:17,048 --> 00:30:18,583 PERIODICALLY IT'S GIVING US THE 934 00:30:18,583 --> 00:30:19,717 CONFIDENCE THAT THEY ARE THERE. 935 00:30:19,717 --> 00:30:21,119 THEY MAY NOT BE AS PERIODIC BUT 936 00:30:21,119 --> 00:30:22,854 IN DEED NOW IT LOOKS LIKE THE 937 00:30:22,854 --> 00:30:24,389 WATER, THE OCEAN, IS 938 00:30:24,389 --> 00:30:25,256 COMMUNICATING WITH THE SURFACE. 939 00:30:25,256 --> 00:30:27,892 BILL AND HIS TEAM IS ALSO 940 00:30:27,892 --> 00:30:29,794 TALKING ABOUT HOW THEY CAN MAKE 941 00:30:29,794 --> 00:30:31,162 MORE OBSERVATIONS BETWEEN NOW 942 00:30:31,162 --> 00:30:34,899 AND WHEN WE DO IN DEED LAUNCH 943 00:30:34,899 --> 00:30:36,568 THE EUROPEA CLIPPER IN THE 944 00:30:36,568 --> 00:30:36,935 2020s. 945 00:30:36,935 --> 00:30:38,803 >> LET'S GO TO THE PHONES. 946 00:30:38,803 --> 00:30:39,237 >> OK. 947 00:30:39,237 --> 00:30:40,605 WELL, BEFORE WE GO TO THE PHONES 948 00:30:40,605 --> 00:30:42,106 LET'S GO AHEAD TO SOCIAL MEDIA 949 00:30:42,106 --> 00:30:44,309 WHERE EMILY IS HELPING FIELD THE 950 00:30:44,309 --> 00:30:44,676 QUESTIONS. 951 00:30:44,676 --> 00:30:45,910 SO EMILY? 952 00:30:45,910 --> 00:30:46,311 >> SURE. 953 00:30:46,311 --> 00:30:47,512 WE HAVE A LOT OF GOOD QUESTIONS 954 00:30:47,512 --> 00:30:47,979 COMING IN. 955 00:30:47,979 --> 00:30:51,683 THIS FIRST ONE IS FROM T. BATINI 956 00:30:51,683 --> 00:30:52,317 ON TWITTER. 957 00:30:52,317 --> 00:30:55,119 SHE WANTS TO KNOW ARE WE TALKING 958 00:30:55,119 --> 00:30:57,121 ABOUT GIANT SQUIDS OR ALGAE AND 959 00:30:57,121 --> 00:30:59,424 BACTERIA? 960 00:30:59,424 --> 00:30:59,891 [LAUGHTER] 961 00:30:59,891 --> 00:31:00,325 >> MARY? 962 00:31:00,325 --> 00:31:01,192 >> I THINK THAT MOST OF US WOULD 963 00:31:01,192 --> 00:31:02,527 BE EXCITED WITH ANY LIFE. 964 00:31:02,527 --> 00:31:04,362 AND WE ARE CERTAINLY WHEN WE ARE 965 00:31:04,362 --> 00:31:05,530 TALKING ABOUT THE SOURCES OF 966 00:31:05,530 --> 00:31:08,199 ENERGY, THIS IS TO FEED THE BASE 967 00:31:08,199 --> 00:31:09,033 OF A FOOD WEB. 968 00:31:09,033 --> 00:31:11,102 SO WE ARE GOING TO START WITH 969 00:31:11,102 --> 00:31:12,537 BACTERIA AND IF WE GET LUCKY, 970 00:31:12,537 --> 00:31:13,638 MAYBE THERE'S SOMETHING THAT'S 971 00:31:13,638 --> 00:31:14,772 LARGER. 972 00:31:14,772 --> 00:31:16,808 >> I THINK WHAT'S REALLY ALSO 973 00:31:16,808 --> 00:31:19,077 EXCITING ABOUT THESE DISCOVERIES 974 00:31:19,077 --> 00:31:22,914 IS THESE OCEAN WORLDS WITH THEIR 975 00:31:22,914 --> 00:31:24,849 PROTECTIVE OUTER SHELL, IF IN 976 00:31:24,849 --> 00:31:27,518 DEED THERE'S LIFE IN THERE, IT 977 00:31:27,518 --> 00:31:29,921 HAS TO BE COMPLETELY DIFFERENT 978 00:31:29,921 --> 00:31:34,192 THAN OURS IN THE SENSE THAT IT'S 979 00:31:34,192 --> 00:31:36,728 GENERATED IN A WAY THAT'S NOT 980 00:31:36,728 --> 00:31:37,428 RELATED TO OUR LIFE. 981 00:31:37,428 --> 00:31:44,035 WE CALL THAT A SECOND GENESIS. 982 00:31:44,035 --> 00:31:47,005 >> THE SECOND QUESTION IS FROM 983 00:31:47,005 --> 00:31:49,040 AT DECENT MAT'S EYE ON TWITTER. 984 00:31:49,040 --> 00:31:50,975 HE WANTS TO KNOW COULD THERE BE 985 00:31:50,975 --> 00:31:54,279 MOVEMENT OF ICE SURROUNDING 986 00:31:54,279 --> 00:31:56,481 INSOLIDUS SIMILAR TO PLATE 987 00:31:56,481 --> 00:31:57,415 TECTONICS HERE ON EARTH? 988 00:31:57,415 --> 00:31:58,783 >> YOU KNOW, THAT'S A REALLY 989 00:31:58,783 --> 00:31:59,917 GREAT QUESTION AND THE REASON 990 00:31:59,917 --> 00:32:01,486 WHY IS, IT WAS ONLY WITHIN THE 991 00:32:01,486 --> 00:32:04,389 LAST COUPLE YEARS THAT WE HAVE 992 00:32:04,389 --> 00:32:09,460 STARTED TO LOOK BACK AT THE 993 00:32:09,460 --> 00:32:10,995 EUROPEA DATA THAT HAS BEEN 994 00:32:10,995 --> 00:32:12,664 GATHERED BY GALLILEO. 995 00:32:12,664 --> 00:32:18,536 GALLILEO ONLY MADE LIKE 10 OR 11 996 00:32:18,536 --> 00:32:21,272 FLY-BYES SUCCESSFULLY BY EUROPA. 997 00:32:21,272 --> 00:32:24,409 SO WE HAVE LIMITED ENERGY. 998 00:32:24,409 --> 00:32:27,045 BUT THERE APPEARS TO BE A 999 00:32:27,045 --> 00:32:30,448 LOCATION WHERE ONE SORT OF 1000 00:32:30,448 --> 00:32:32,317 SEDUCTION IS GOING ON IN A CRACK 1001 00:32:32,317 --> 00:32:33,584 WHERE ONE PLATE OF THE ICY SHELL 1002 00:32:33,584 --> 00:32:35,019 IS MOVING UNDERNEATH ANOTHER. 1003 00:32:35,019 --> 00:32:36,854 WE DON'T KNOW THAT THAT'S TRUE. 1004 00:32:36,854 --> 00:32:39,624 IT MAY BE A MUCH GREATER 1005 00:32:39,624 --> 00:32:41,092 LOCATION ALL AROUND THAT BODY. 1006 00:32:41,092 --> 00:32:42,894 BUT YOU CAN UNDERSTAND THE 1007 00:32:42,894 --> 00:32:45,063 STRESSES WHEN YOU THINK ABOUT 1008 00:32:45,063 --> 00:32:46,764 THE TIDAL FORCES. 1009 00:32:46,764 --> 00:32:49,967 EUROPA IS IN AN ELLIPTICAL ORBIT 1010 00:32:49,967 --> 00:32:52,537 AROUND JUPITER AND IT ALSO HAS 1011 00:32:52,537 --> 00:32:53,671 TIDAL FORCES BEING PUSHED AROUND 1012 00:32:53,671 --> 00:33:01,546 BY THE OTHER GALLILEON MOONS. 1013 00:33:01,546 --> 00:33:02,947 EVERY TWO AND A HALF TO THREE 1014 00:33:02,947 --> 00:33:04,615 DAYS AS IT MAKES ITS ORBIT T IS 1015 00:33:04,615 --> 00:33:06,417 BEING SQUEEZED AND RELEASED AND 1016 00:33:06,417 --> 00:33:07,618 SQUEEZED AND RELEASED. 1017 00:33:07,618 --> 00:33:10,455 OUR ESTIMATE TODAY IS THAT THE 1018 00:33:10,455 --> 00:33:12,724 SURFACE MOVES AS MUCH AS 30 1019 00:33:12,724 --> 00:33:13,891 METERS -- THAT'S THE HEIGHT OF 1020 00:33:13,891 --> 00:33:16,794 AN EIGHT OR NINE-STORY BUILDING 1021 00:33:16,794 --> 00:33:19,664 -- EVERY TWO OR THREE DAYS. 1022 00:33:19,664 --> 00:33:22,266 THAT HEAT HAS GOT TO GO 1023 00:33:22,266 --> 00:33:22,667 SOMEWHERE. 1024 00:33:22,667 --> 00:33:23,901 AND THE PUSHING AND THE STRESSES 1025 00:33:23,901 --> 00:33:27,338 ON THE ICY SHELL MAY, IN DEED, 1026 00:33:27,338 --> 00:33:30,708 BE LIKE OUR PLATE TECTONICS. 1027 00:33:30,708 --> 00:33:32,510 >> CAN I ADD ONE THING ABOUT IT 1028 00:33:32,510 --> 00:33:33,644 THAT'S ACTUALLY IMPORTANT FOR 1029 00:33:33,644 --> 00:33:35,079 LIFE, SO HERE ON EARTH MANY 1030 00:33:35,079 --> 00:33:36,748 PEOPLE BELIEVE THAT WE WOULDN'T 1031 00:33:36,748 --> 00:33:38,316 HAVE SUSTAINED LIFE ON EARTH IF 1032 00:33:38,316 --> 00:33:41,252 IT WEREN'T FOR PLATE TECTONICS. 1033 00:33:41,252 --> 00:33:42,954 IT'S A GREAT PROCESS FOR 1034 00:33:42,954 --> 00:33:44,021 RECYCLING MATERIALS, BRINGING 1035 00:33:44,021 --> 00:33:45,723 THINGS THAT WE NEED TO SUPPORT 1036 00:33:45,723 --> 00:33:48,159 LIFE UP FROM THE MANTLE AND 1037 00:33:48,159 --> 00:33:48,559 BELOW. 1038 00:33:48,559 --> 00:33:51,028 AND SO, IT -- THAT KIND OF A 1039 00:33:51,028 --> 00:33:52,263 PROCESS IS VERY IMPORTANT ON 1040 00:33:52,263 --> 00:33:54,499 THESE ICY MOONS, AS WELL. 1041 00:33:54,499 --> 00:33:56,934 BECAUSE WE THINK ABOUT -- WE 1042 00:33:56,934 --> 00:33:57,902 HAVE JUST HEARD ABOUT SOME 1043 00:33:57,902 --> 00:33:58,803 SOURCES OF ENERGY THAT ARE 1044 00:33:58,803 --> 00:33:59,904 COMING FROM THE INTERACTION OF 1045 00:33:59,904 --> 00:34:02,006 THE WATER AND THE CORE. 1046 00:34:02,006 --> 00:34:04,175 WE ALSO THINK ON EUROPA THERE 1047 00:34:04,175 --> 00:34:06,911 ARE CREATIONS OF OXIDANTS AT THE 1048 00:34:06,911 --> 00:34:07,912 SURFACE AS A RESULT OF THE 1049 00:34:07,912 --> 00:34:09,447 RADIATION AT THE SURFACE. 1050 00:34:09,447 --> 00:34:15,286 AND WE NEED SOME SORT OF ACTIVE 1051 00:34:15,286 --> 00:34:16,754 SHELL, ICE TECTONICS, IF YOU 1052 00:34:16,754 --> 00:34:18,222 WILL, TO ACTUALLY BRING THOSE 1053 00:34:18,222 --> 00:34:18,823 INTO CONTACT. 1054 00:34:18,823 --> 00:34:20,458 MUCH LIKE A BATTERY WHERE YOU 1055 00:34:20,458 --> 00:34:24,395 HAVE A POSITIVE AND A NEGATIVE 1056 00:34:24,395 --> 00:34:26,063 POLE, TO ACTUALLY CONNECT AND 1057 00:34:26,063 --> 00:34:26,664 DRIVE LIFE. 1058 00:34:26,664 --> 00:34:27,899 THIS PROCESS IS REALLY IMPORTANT 1059 00:34:27,899 --> 00:34:28,666 FOR LIFE. 1060 00:34:28,666 --> 00:34:29,033 >> OK. 1061 00:34:29,033 --> 00:34:29,834 WELL THANK YOU VERY MUCH. 1062 00:34:29,834 --> 00:34:31,102 WE ARE GOING TO TAKE ONE MORE 1063 00:34:31,102 --> 00:34:32,170 QUESTION FROM SOCIAL MEDIA AND 1064 00:34:32,170 --> 00:34:33,571 THEN WE WILL GO TO THE PHONE 1065 00:34:33,571 --> 00:34:33,871 LINES. 1066 00:34:33,871 --> 00:34:35,573 SO EMILY? 1067 00:34:35,573 --> 00:34:35,973 >> SURE. 1068 00:34:35,973 --> 00:34:37,341 THIS QUESTION IS FROM PHILLIP ON 1069 00:34:37,341 --> 00:34:38,810 FACEBOOK AND HE WANTS TO KNOW 1070 00:34:38,810 --> 00:34:40,178 WHICH MOON DO YOU THINK OFFERS 1071 00:34:40,178 --> 00:34:42,947 MORE POSSIBILITY OF LIFE ON IT? 1072 00:34:42,947 --> 00:34:44,382 EUROPA OR INSOLIDUS? 1073 00:34:44,382 --> 00:34:45,683 >> WOW, THAT IT'S A GOOD -- 1074 00:34:45,683 --> 00:34:46,517 THAT'S A GREAT QUESTION. 1075 00:34:46,517 --> 00:34:48,186 I WISH I KNEW FOR SURE. 1076 00:34:48,186 --> 00:34:49,420 >> WELL I HAVE AN IDEA. 1077 00:34:49,420 --> 00:34:51,122 >> ALL RIGHT, MARY WILL GIVE IT 1078 00:34:51,122 --> 00:34:51,756 A SHOT. 1079 00:34:51,756 --> 00:34:53,224 >> WELL, SO I THINK THAT THIS 1080 00:34:53,224 --> 00:34:56,360 RESULT OF FINDING SUCH A 1081 00:34:56,360 --> 00:34:58,129 SIGNIFICANT AMOUNT OF 1082 00:34:58,129 --> 00:34:59,630 HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY AND A GOT 1083 00:34:59,630 --> 00:35:00,965 OF HYDROGEN IS INCREDIBLE. 1084 00:35:00,965 --> 00:35:04,502 IT SPEAKS TO THE HABITABILITY. 1085 00:35:04,502 --> 00:35:05,336 ON THE OTHER HAND, THE FACT THAT 1086 00:35:05,336 --> 00:35:07,638 WE CAN MEASURE SUCH HIGH 1087 00:35:07,638 --> 00:35:10,141 CONCENTRATIONS OF HYDROGEN AND 1088 00:35:10,141 --> 00:35:11,742 CARBON DIOXIDE MEANS THAT THERE 1089 00:35:11,742 --> 00:35:13,377 MIGHT NOT BE LIFE THERE AT ALL 1090 00:35:13,377 --> 00:35:14,946 AND IF THERE IS LIFE, IT'S NOT 1091 00:35:14,946 --> 00:35:16,180 VERY ACTIVE. 1092 00:35:16,180 --> 00:35:19,116 BECAUSE WHEN YOU HAVE THOSE 1093 00:35:19,116 --> 00:35:22,086 STACKS OF PIZZA, MUCH LIKE IN A 1094 00:35:22,086 --> 00:35:23,654 GRADUATE SCHOOL DEPARTMENT, IT 1095 00:35:23,654 --> 00:35:24,055 DISAPPEARS. 1096 00:35:24,055 --> 00:35:25,723 SO, WE HAVE THIS BUILDUP OF FOOD 1097 00:35:25,723 --> 00:35:27,091 THAT'S NOT BEING USED. 1098 00:35:27,091 --> 00:35:29,327 AND PART OF THAT COULD BE 1099 00:35:29,327 --> 00:35:31,162 BECAUSE WE THINK INSOLIDUS MIGHT 1100 00:35:31,162 --> 00:35:32,630 BE FAIRLY YOUNG. 1101 00:35:32,630 --> 00:35:34,432 ON THE OTHER HAND, IF THE SAME 1102 00:35:34,432 --> 00:35:35,333 PROCESS, WHICH THERE'S NO REASON 1103 00:35:35,333 --> 00:35:38,903 TO THINK IT WOULDN'T BE 1104 00:35:38,903 --> 00:35:40,671 HAPPENING ON EUROPA, WE KNOW 1105 00:35:40,671 --> 00:35:42,173 EUROPA AND THE MOONS AROUND 1106 00:35:42,173 --> 00:35:44,308 JUPITER WERE FORMED A BILLION 1107 00:35:44,308 --> 00:35:44,775 YEARS AGO. 1108 00:35:44,775 --> 00:35:46,077 THAT'S A LOT OF TIME FOR LIFE TO 1109 00:35:46,077 --> 00:35:53,217 HAVE EMERGED AND STARTED TAKENG 1110 00:35:53,217 --> 00:35:55,353 ADVANTAGE. 1111 00:35:55,353 --> 00:35:58,890 MY MONEY IS STILL ON EUROPA. 1112 00:35:58,890 --> 00:36:00,258 BUT IT COULD BE ANY OF THESE 1113 00:36:00,258 --> 00:36:01,259 MOONS AND WOULD BE GREAT IF IT 1114 00:36:01,259 --> 00:36:02,226 WAS ALL OF THEM. 1115 00:36:02,226 --> 00:36:03,094 >> WELL THANK YOU SO MUCH. 1116 00:36:03,094 --> 00:36:05,396 NEXT WE HAVE MIKE FROM SPACE.COM 1117 00:36:05,396 --> 00:36:06,731 ON THE PHONE LINES. 1118 00:36:06,731 --> 00:36:09,834 MIKE, ARE YOU THERE? 1119 00:36:09,834 --> 00:36:10,768 >> YES, I'M HERE. 1120 00:36:10,768 --> 00:36:12,403 THANK YOU GUYS. 1121 00:36:12,403 --> 00:36:16,607 REALLY EXCITING STUFF AND I HAVE 1122 00:36:16,607 --> 00:36:18,009 ANOTHER QUESTION FOR BILL ABOUT 1123 00:36:18,009 --> 00:36:19,110 THE PLUMES. 1124 00:36:19,110 --> 00:36:21,145 SO, JUST, YEAH, JUST SO I'M SORT 1125 00:36:21,145 --> 00:36:23,915 OF CLEAR ON THIS, THIS IS NOT A 1126 00:36:23,915 --> 00:36:25,016 CONFIRMATION THAT THE PLUMES 1127 00:36:25,016 --> 00:36:27,485 EXIST, I KNOW YOU GUYS -- I KEEP 1128 00:36:27,485 --> 00:36:28,953 SEEING MORE AND MORE SIGNS, BUT 1129 00:36:28,953 --> 00:36:30,288 YOU ARE STOPPING SHORT OF SAYING 1130 00:36:30,288 --> 00:36:31,789 THAT THEY DEFINITELY EXIST. 1131 00:36:31,789 --> 00:36:34,425 AND JUST SO I UNDERSTAND, ARE 1132 00:36:34,425 --> 00:36:35,760 THESE IN THE SAME LOCATION AS 1133 00:36:35,760 --> 00:36:37,795 THE ORIGINAL 2012 SECTION? 1134 00:36:37,795 --> 00:36:39,730 OR LIKE DO THE PLUMES -- I MEAN 1135 00:36:39,730 --> 00:36:41,232 HAVE THEY BEEN SPOTTED IN 1136 00:36:41,232 --> 00:36:43,067 MULTIPLE LOCATIONS ALL AROUND 1137 00:36:43,067 --> 00:36:43,401 EUROPA? 1138 00:36:43,401 --> 00:36:46,704 THANK YOU. 1139 00:36:46,704 --> 00:36:48,105 >> LET'S HAVE BILL SPARKS OF 1140 00:36:48,105 --> 00:36:49,874 COURSE ANSWER THAT. 1141 00:36:49,874 --> 00:36:51,909 >> OK. 1142 00:36:51,909 --> 00:36:54,478 IT'S NOT COMPLETELY UNEQUIVOCAL. 1143 00:36:54,478 --> 00:36:58,616 BUT, IN MY MIND, THE PENDULUM 1144 00:36:58,616 --> 00:37:00,851 HAS SWUNG FROM CAUTION TO 1145 00:37:00,851 --> 00:37:01,986 OPTIMISM. 1146 00:37:01,986 --> 00:37:02,954 THE EVIDENCE IS GROWING. 1147 00:37:02,954 --> 00:37:05,890 THE FACT THAT WE SAW A REPEAT AT 1148 00:37:05,890 --> 00:37:08,025 THE EXACT SAME LOCATION, THAT'S 1149 00:37:08,025 --> 00:37:10,094 ONE OF THE THE GOLD STANDARDS 1150 00:37:10,094 --> 00:37:13,464 FOR DEALING WITH AN INTERMITTENT 1151 00:37:13,464 --> 00:37:13,864 PHENOMENON. 1152 00:37:13,864 --> 00:37:15,466 IT'S NOT PROOF, BECAUSE WE ARE 1153 00:37:15,466 --> 00:37:17,001 RIGHT AT THE LIMIT OF WHAT THE 1154 00:37:17,001 --> 00:37:23,207 HUBBLE CAN DO. 1155 00:37:23,207 --> 00:37:26,143 IT'S NOT COMPLETELY UNEQUIVOCAL. 1156 00:37:26,143 --> 00:37:27,345 ON INSOLIDUS, HAVE YOU MOVEMENTS 1157 00:37:27,345 --> 00:37:28,779 OF THE PLUMES AND WONDERFUL MAPS 1158 00:37:28,779 --> 00:37:31,482 AND TEMPERATURE MAPS AND MASS 1159 00:37:31,482 --> 00:37:33,150 SPECTROMETER MEASUREMENTS OF THE 1160 00:37:33,150 --> 00:37:35,086 COMPOSITION AND WE HAVE A LITTLE 1161 00:37:35,086 --> 00:37:37,321 SMUDGE NEXT TO AN IMAGE FROM THE 1162 00:37:37,321 --> 00:37:37,655 HUBBLE. 1163 00:37:37,655 --> 00:37:40,491 IT'S A FANTASTIC IMAGE AND -- 1164 00:37:40,491 --> 00:37:42,059 BUT IT'S RIGHT AT THE WILL LIMIT 1165 00:37:42,059 --> 00:37:43,928 OF WHAT THE -- THE LIMIT OF WHAT 1166 00:37:43,928 --> 00:37:44,795 THE HUBBLE CAN DO. 1167 00:37:44,795 --> 00:37:45,896 THE FACT THAT WE HAVE A REPEAT 1168 00:37:45,896 --> 00:37:47,698 TELLS YOU IN A FORMAL 1169 00:37:47,698 --> 00:37:48,733 STATISTICAL SENSE, IT CAN'T 1170 00:37:48,733 --> 00:37:49,433 HAPPEN BY CHANCE. 1171 00:37:49,433 --> 00:37:51,936 SO, WE HAVE TO LOOK FOR 1172 00:37:51,936 --> 00:37:53,204 SYSTEMATIC EFFECTS THAT MIGHT 1173 00:37:53,204 --> 00:37:53,704 CAUSE IT. 1174 00:37:53,704 --> 00:37:55,940 WE DON'T KNOW OF ANY, WHICH IS 1175 00:37:55,940 --> 00:37:58,409 WHY MOST OF US, SOME OF US, ARE 1176 00:37:58,409 --> 00:38:00,077 LEANING TOWARD THINKING THAT 1177 00:38:00,077 --> 00:38:02,513 THIS IS -- THIS MEANS THEY ARE 1178 00:38:02,513 --> 00:38:02,813 REAL. 1179 00:38:02,813 --> 00:38:04,982 AND THEN THE SECONDARY 1180 00:38:04,982 --> 00:38:07,418 INFORMATION WITH THE THERMAL 1181 00:38:07,418 --> 00:38:08,252 IMAGING, AS SOON AS I WENT TO 1182 00:38:08,252 --> 00:38:12,256 LOOK FOR THE THERMAL IMAGING, 1183 00:38:12,256 --> 00:38:13,958 GIVES YOU SOME ADDITIONAL 1184 00:38:13,958 --> 00:38:15,960 STATISTICAL EVIDENCE THAT IN 1185 00:38:15,960 --> 00:38:17,261 FACT THEY ARE REAL. 1186 00:38:17,261 --> 00:38:18,529 IT DOESN'T PROVE IT, BECAUSE, 1187 00:38:18,529 --> 00:38:21,465 YOU KNOW, UNFORTUNATE 1188 00:38:21,465 --> 00:38:22,266 COINCIDENCES CAN HAPPEN IN THE 1189 00:38:22,266 --> 00:38:22,600 WORLD. 1190 00:38:22,600 --> 00:38:28,139 IN TERMS OF THE LOCATION, THE 1191 00:38:28,139 --> 00:38:30,374 ORIGINAL DETECTION BY THE ROTH 1192 00:38:30,374 --> 00:38:32,043 TEAM WAS AROUND THE SOUTH POLAR 1193 00:38:32,043 --> 00:38:32,376 REGION. 1194 00:38:32,376 --> 00:38:36,313 THESE ARE THE DISSOCIATION 1195 00:38:36,313 --> 00:38:37,815 PROJECTS OF WATER AT HIGH 1196 00:38:37,815 --> 00:38:39,450 ALTITUDE DOWN AROUND THE SOUTH 1197 00:38:39,450 --> 00:38:40,584 POLE. 1198 00:38:40,584 --> 00:38:42,353 AND, IN OUR TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS 1199 00:38:42,353 --> 00:38:44,221 WHERE WE WERE LOOKING FOR 1200 00:38:44,221 --> 00:38:45,489 ABSORBING MATERIAL AROUND 1201 00:38:45,489 --> 00:38:51,195 EUROPA, WE DID SEE A COUPLE OF 1202 00:38:51,195 --> 00:38:52,830 FEATURES IN THAT -- IN THAT 1203 00:38:52,830 --> 00:38:53,264 AREA. 1204 00:38:53,264 --> 00:38:55,132 BUT, IT'S HARDER TO LOCALIZE 1205 00:38:55,132 --> 00:38:57,635 THINGS AROUND THE POLES. 1206 00:38:57,635 --> 00:38:59,804 THIS PARTICULAR ONE WAS WELL 1207 00:38:59,804 --> 00:39:00,171 LOCALIZED. 1208 00:39:00,171 --> 00:39:02,306 IT WASN'T QUITE AS HIGH AS THE 1209 00:39:02,306 --> 00:39:02,773 PREVIOUS ONE. 1210 00:39:02,773 --> 00:39:04,075 AND THAT'S THE ONE THAT REPEATED 1211 00:39:04,075 --> 00:39:05,409 AND SO THAT'S REALLY QUITE 1212 00:39:05,409 --> 00:39:09,346 INTERESTING. 1213 00:39:09,346 --> 00:39:10,047 >> THANK YOU. 1214 00:39:10,047 --> 00:39:11,182 THERE'S A COUPLE OF OTHER PIECES 1215 00:39:11,182 --> 00:39:12,683 OF EVIDENCE THAT THINK IS ALSO 1216 00:39:12,683 --> 00:39:13,918 REALLY TANTALIZING. 1217 00:39:13,918 --> 00:39:16,687 YOU KNOW, WE LOOK AT INSOLIDUS, 1218 00:39:16,687 --> 00:39:17,955 PARTICULARLY AROUND THOSE TIGER 1219 00:39:17,955 --> 00:39:19,924 STRIPES, THERE'S ABSOLUTELY NO 1220 00:39:19,924 --> 00:39:20,324 CRATERS. 1221 00:39:20,324 --> 00:39:22,159 THEY ARE COMPLETELY FILLED IN. 1222 00:39:22,159 --> 00:39:25,129 AS YOU GO TO THE MID LATITUDES 1223 00:39:25,129 --> 00:39:28,999 AND UP TO THE NORTH POLE OF 1224 00:39:28,999 --> 00:39:30,568 INSOLIDUS, YOU DO, IN DEED, SEE 1225 00:39:30,568 --> 00:39:31,902 A NUMBER OF CRATERS. 1226 00:39:31,902 --> 00:39:36,640 IF WE LOOK NOW AT EUROPA, WE CAN 1227 00:39:36,640 --> 00:39:38,075 HARDLY SEE ANY CRATERS. 1228 00:39:38,075 --> 00:39:39,510 THIS HAS ALWAYS BEEN A BIG 1229 00:39:39,510 --> 00:39:42,513 PUZZLE IN TERMS OF HOW THIS 1230 00:39:42,513 --> 00:39:45,182 SURFACE IS MORPHING, ELIMINATING 1231 00:39:45,182 --> 00:39:47,084 THE CRATERS THAT MUST HAVE BEEN 1232 00:39:47,084 --> 00:39:48,953 THERE AT ONE TIME AND ARE 1233 00:39:48,953 --> 00:39:51,856 CONTINUALLY BOMBARDING THE BODY, 1234 00:39:51,856 --> 00:39:53,424 BUT OVER THE LENGTH OF TIME THAT 1235 00:39:53,424 --> 00:39:55,693 WE HAVE OBSERVED IT WITH THE 1236 00:39:55,693 --> 00:39:56,927 GALLILEO MISSION, THOSE SEVERAL 1237 00:39:56,927 --> 00:39:58,729 YEARS, ONLY A HANDFUL OF CRATERS 1238 00:39:58,729 --> 00:39:59,663 WERE FOUND. 1239 00:39:59,663 --> 00:40:02,299 THE PLUMES -- THE PLUME IDEA 1240 00:40:02,299 --> 00:40:11,175 THAT IT IS RESURFACING AND THE 1241 00:40:11,175 --> 00:40:12,176 SUBDUCTION MUST BE IN A WAY 1242 00:40:12,176 --> 00:40:13,644 THAT'S ELIMINATING THESE 1243 00:40:13,644 --> 00:40:13,978 CRATERS. 1244 00:40:13,978 --> 00:40:15,913 THIS FITS PERFECTLY WITH THESE 1245 00:40:15,913 --> 00:40:16,347 OBSERVATIONS. 1246 00:40:16,347 --> 00:40:18,983 >> I THINK IS' A ZAMBONI. 1247 00:40:18,983 --> 00:40:20,017 [LAUGHTER] 1248 00:40:20,017 --> 00:40:21,185 >> NEXT WE HAVE TWO QUESTIONS ON 1249 00:40:21,185 --> 00:40:21,886 THE PHONE LINE. 1250 00:40:21,886 --> 00:40:23,721 THEN WE WILL GO AHEAD AND GO TO 1251 00:40:23,721 --> 00:40:25,289 SOCIAL MEDIA. 1252 00:40:25,289 --> 00:40:27,324 SO, THE FIRST CALL-IN PERSON WE 1253 00:40:27,324 --> 00:40:30,795 HAVE IS KEITH FROM NASA WATCH. 1254 00:40:30,795 --> 00:40:31,128 KEITH? 1255 00:40:31,128 --> 00:40:36,167 >> A TWO-PART QUESTION FOR 1256 00:40:36,167 --> 00:40:37,334 THOMAS ZURBUCHEN. 1257 00:40:37,334 --> 00:40:39,703 NASA WAS DIRECTED TO CREATE AN 1258 00:40:39,703 --> 00:40:40,671 OCEAN WORLDS PROGRAM. 1259 00:40:40,671 --> 00:40:42,540 NOW I SEE THAT PHRASE 1260 00:40:42,540 --> 00:40:42,940 EVERYWHERE. 1261 00:40:42,940 --> 00:40:44,909 HAVE YOU FORMALLY ESTABLISHED A 1262 00:40:44,909 --> 00:40:45,976 PROGRAM OFFICE? 1263 00:40:45,976 --> 00:40:47,511 WHO'S IN CHARGE OF IT, WHAT'S 1264 00:40:47,511 --> 00:40:48,479 THE BUDGET? 1265 00:40:48,479 --> 00:40:50,247 SECOND, WHY IS IT THAT SOME NEWS 1266 00:40:50,247 --> 00:40:51,782 MEDIA WERE GIVEN ADVANCE ACCESS 1267 00:40:51,782 --> 00:40:54,251 TO NASA PERSONNEL ON THIS 1268 00:40:54,251 --> 00:40:55,686 TAXPAYER FUNDED RESEARCH AND 1269 00:40:55,686 --> 00:40:59,423 OTHERS OF US WERE NOT? 1270 00:40:59,423 --> 00:41:01,158 >> SO, LET ME CERTAINLY TAKE ON 1271 00:41:01,158 --> 00:41:03,427 THE FIRST ONE AS HEAD OF 1272 00:41:03,427 --> 00:41:05,830 PLANETARY SCIENCE AND WE DID IN 1273 00:41:05,830 --> 00:41:06,664 DEED RECEIVE CONGRESSIONAL 1274 00:41:06,664 --> 00:41:09,066 DIRECTION ABOUT ESTABLISHING AN 1275 00:41:09,066 --> 00:41:11,936 OCEAN WORLDS PROGRAM. 1276 00:41:11,936 --> 00:41:13,704 WE HAVE IN DEED COMMUNICATED 1277 00:41:13,704 --> 00:41:15,339 BACK TO CONGRESS IN OUR 1278 00:41:15,339 --> 00:41:18,776 BUDGETARY ASPECTS THAT WE ARE 1279 00:41:18,776 --> 00:41:23,247 DOING THAT IN WITH RESPECT TO 1280 00:41:23,247 --> 00:41:24,648 THE NEXT SET OF MISSIONS AND 1281 00:41:24,648 --> 00:41:27,384 THAT NEXT SET IS IN DEED THE 1282 00:41:27,384 --> 00:41:29,553 EUROPA CLIPPER MISSION. 1283 00:41:29,553 --> 00:41:31,522 AS FAR AS THE PRESS CENTER 1284 00:41:31,522 --> 00:41:32,590 ACTION THAT -- THAT'S DONE IN 1285 00:41:32,590 --> 00:41:33,224 ANOTHER WAY. 1286 00:41:33,224 --> 00:41:36,060 >> SO WE HAVE ALSO BEEN DIRECTED 1287 00:41:36,060 --> 00:41:37,461 TO ESTABLISH A PROGRAM FOR 1288 00:41:37,461 --> 00:41:38,329 INVESTIGATING OCEAN WORLDS AND 1289 00:41:38,329 --> 00:41:40,965 WE WENT TO OUR OUTER PLANET 1290 00:41:40,965 --> 00:41:41,932 ASSESSMENT GROUP AND ASKED THEM 1291 00:41:41,932 --> 00:41:44,468 TO HELP US OUT BY DEVELOPING A 1292 00:41:44,468 --> 00:41:45,970 ROADMAP FOR EXPLORING THESE 1293 00:41:45,970 --> 00:41:46,303 WORLDS. 1294 00:41:46,303 --> 00:41:48,105 AND THAT IS IN PROCESS. 1295 00:41:48,105 --> 00:41:49,440 THEY ARE ABOUT TO DELIVER THAT 1296 00:41:49,440 --> 00:41:52,276 TO US ANY DAY NOW OR ANY MONTH 1297 00:41:52,276 --> 00:41:52,543 NOW. 1298 00:41:52,543 --> 00:41:53,210 WEEK. 1299 00:41:53,210 --> 00:41:55,779 AND SO WE ARE MOVING FORWARD ON 1300 00:41:55,779 --> 00:41:57,448 SETTING THE SCIENCE AS WE ALWAYS 1301 00:41:57,448 --> 00:41:59,283 DO, SETTING THE SCIENCE 1302 00:41:59,283 --> 00:42:00,117 PRIORITIES AND THEN FILLING IN 1303 00:42:00,117 --> 00:42:01,352 THE TECHNOLOGIES THAT WE ARE 1304 00:42:01,352 --> 00:42:03,821 GOING TO NEED FOR IT AND 1305 00:42:03,821 --> 00:42:04,855 DISCUSSING TYPES OF MISSIONS 1306 00:42:04,855 --> 00:42:06,490 THOSE WOULD LOOK LIKE TO THE 1307 00:42:06,490 --> 00:42:07,558 VARIOUS OCEAN WORLDS THAT WE 1308 00:42:07,558 --> 00:42:10,194 HAVE TO EXPLORE. 1309 00:42:10,194 --> 00:42:11,896 >> NEXT WE HAVE TRACY WATSON 1310 00:42:11,896 --> 00:42:13,731 FROM USA TODAY. 1311 00:42:13,731 --> 00:42:15,332 TRACY? 1312 00:42:15,332 --> 00:42:17,401 >> HI, THANK YOU FOR DR. GREEN. 1313 00:42:17,401 --> 00:42:18,936 CAN YOU TALK ABOUT NOW HOW THIS 1314 00:42:18,936 --> 00:42:22,439 MISSION AFFECTS YOUR DESIRE TO 1315 00:42:22,439 --> 00:42:23,974 SEND -- HOW THE RESULTS AFFECT 1316 00:42:23,974 --> 00:42:27,344 YOUR DESIRE TO SEND A MISSION TO 1317 00:42:27,344 --> 00:42:27,745 INSOLIDUS? 1318 00:42:27,745 --> 00:42:28,812 DOES THIS MAKE IT SIGNED OF RISE 1319 00:42:28,812 --> 00:42:30,047 TO THE TOP OF WHAT SHOULD BE 1320 00:42:30,047 --> 00:42:30,347 NEXT? 1321 00:42:30,347 --> 00:42:31,749 THANKS. 1322 00:42:31,749 --> 00:42:36,687 >> WELL, IN DEED, WE ANNOUNCED 1323 00:42:36,687 --> 00:42:38,255 IN JANUARY A PROGRAM CALLED NEW 1324 00:42:38,255 --> 00:42:40,891 FRONTIERS AND THAT IS A VERY 1325 00:42:40,891 --> 00:42:42,960 TARGETED LIST OF OBJECTS. 1326 00:42:42,960 --> 00:42:45,462 ON THAT LIST, TURNS OUT TO BE 1327 00:42:45,462 --> 00:42:45,829 INSOLIDUS. 1328 00:42:45,829 --> 00:42:48,499 THIS IS AN ELEMENT IN DEED OF 1329 00:42:48,499 --> 00:42:49,967 RECOGNITION THAT THIS IS AN 1330 00:42:49,967 --> 00:42:50,567 ACTIVE WORLD. 1331 00:42:50,567 --> 00:42:52,069 THAT THIS IS NEW DISCOVERIES 1332 00:42:52,069 --> 00:42:55,072 THAT HAVE BEEN MADE BY CASINI 1333 00:42:55,072 --> 00:42:58,676 SINCE THE TIME OUR PLANETARY 1334 00:42:58,676 --> 00:43:00,144 DECADLE ACTUALLY IDENTIFIED WHAT 1335 00:43:00,144 --> 00:43:01,278 THOSE TARGETS ARE. 1336 00:43:01,278 --> 00:43:03,948 SO, THAT'S IN COMPETITION RIGHT 1337 00:43:03,948 --> 00:43:05,983 NOW AND WE WILL BE RECEIVING THE 1338 00:43:05,983 --> 00:43:07,685 PROPOSALS SOON AND WILL BE 1339 00:43:07,685 --> 00:43:10,454 EVALUATING THEM AND ANNOUNCING 1340 00:43:10,454 --> 00:43:12,623 THE STEP ONE SELECTEES BY THE 1341 00:43:12,623 --> 00:43:14,959 END OF THE CALENDAR YEAR IS WHAT 1342 00:43:14,959 --> 00:43:16,026 WE HOPE. 1343 00:43:16,026 --> 00:43:16,593 >> THANKS, JIM. 1344 00:43:16,593 --> 00:43:18,062 NEXT WE WILL GO TO SOCIAL MEDIA. 1345 00:43:18,062 --> 00:43:21,298 SO, EMILY, WHAT ARE THE NETIZANS 1346 00:43:21,298 --> 00:43:22,232 TALKING ABOUT TODAY? 1347 00:43:22,232 --> 00:43:23,200 >> YEAH, THERE'S A LOT OF 1348 00:43:23,200 --> 00:43:24,435 INTEREST ON SOCIAL MEDIA. 1349 00:43:24,435 --> 00:43:27,638 THIS QUESTION IS FROM LORENZO ON 1350 00:43:27,638 --> 00:43:28,005 FACEBOOK. 1351 00:43:28,005 --> 00:43:30,207 SO THE JUNO SPACE CRAFT WENT 1352 00:43:30,207 --> 00:43:31,608 INTO ORBIT AROUND JUPITER. 1353 00:43:31,608 --> 00:43:33,077 IS THERE ANY POSSIBILITY FOR 1354 00:43:33,077 --> 00:43:35,379 THAT SPACE CRAFT TO HELP WITH 1355 00:43:35,379 --> 00:43:36,380 OBSERVATIONS OF THE PLUMES 1356 00:43:36,380 --> 00:43:37,348 AROUND EUROPA? 1357 00:43:37,348 --> 00:43:40,684 >> WELL, IN DEED, JUNO WAS 1358 00:43:40,684 --> 00:43:41,752 LAUNCHED IN 2011. 1359 00:43:41,752 --> 00:43:43,687 WE MAY HAVE HAD A HINT OF THE 1360 00:43:43,687 --> 00:43:46,323 PLUMES OF COURSE FROM CASINI. 1361 00:43:46,323 --> 00:43:48,192 BUT, ABSOLUTELY NOTHING FROM 1362 00:43:48,192 --> 00:43:49,560 EUROPA BY THAT TIME. 1363 00:43:49,560 --> 00:43:51,862 AND SO, IT'S CONCENTRATING ON 1364 00:43:51,862 --> 00:43:54,865 REALLY ORBITING JUPITER AND 1365 00:43:54,865 --> 00:43:59,169 UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE THAT 1366 00:43:59,169 --> 00:44:00,537 LARGE PLANET, THE LARGEST PLANET 1367 00:44:00,537 --> 00:44:02,706 IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM. 1368 00:44:02,706 --> 00:44:04,475 IT ALSO IS SO IMPORTANT TO 1369 00:44:04,475 --> 00:44:07,244 UNDERSTAND THAT, BECAUSE THE 1370 00:44:07,244 --> 00:44:10,914 REMNANTS LEFT OVER AFTER JUPITER 1371 00:44:10,914 --> 00:44:12,316 AND SUN CREATED THE REST OF THE 1372 00:44:12,316 --> 00:44:13,017 SOLAR SYSTEM. 1373 00:44:13,017 --> 00:44:14,618 SO, WE ARE REALLY QUITE 1374 00:44:14,618 --> 00:44:15,919 INTERESTED IN UNDERSTANDING THE 1375 00:44:15,919 --> 00:44:17,221 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF OUR 1376 00:44:17,221 --> 00:44:18,989 SOLAR SYSTEM AND UNDERSTANDING 1377 00:44:18,989 --> 00:44:20,257 HOW JUPITER WAS PUT TOGETHER IS 1378 00:44:20,257 --> 00:44:21,492 A MAJOR SEGMENT OF THAT. 1379 00:44:21,492 --> 00:44:26,063 , SO UNFORTUNATELY NO EUROPA 1380 00:44:26,063 --> 00:44:28,365 OBSERVATION. 1381 00:44:28,365 --> 00:44:30,534 >> THIS NEXT ONE IS FROM CARRIE 1382 00:44:30,534 --> 00:44:31,135 ON FACEBOOK. 1383 00:44:31,135 --> 00:44:33,604 THEY WANT IT KNOW WHAT CHEMICALS 1384 00:44:33,604 --> 00:44:36,640 ARE CAUSING THE COLORATION OF 1385 00:44:36,640 --> 00:44:37,941 THE CRACKS AROUND EUROPA? 1386 00:44:37,941 --> 00:44:42,012 >> SO WITH THAT, PERHAPS GODDARD 1387 00:44:42,012 --> 00:44:43,180 COULD TALK A LITTLE BIT ABOUT 1388 00:44:43,180 --> 00:44:43,480 THAT. 1389 00:44:43,480 --> 00:44:46,316 BILL? 1390 00:44:46,316 --> 00:44:47,785 >> I THINK THE SHORT ANSWER IS 1391 00:44:47,785 --> 00:44:49,553 -- WE DON'T KNOW. 1392 00:44:49,553 --> 00:44:53,023 THERE ARE SYSTEMS OF SALT FROM 1393 00:44:53,023 --> 00:44:55,125 THE OCEAN, BUT IT'S NOT KNOWN 1394 00:44:55,125 --> 00:44:56,360 WHAT SORT OF SALT AND THAT 1395 00:44:56,360 --> 00:44:58,896 POTENTIALLY THERE'S A 1396 00:44:58,896 --> 00:45:02,566 CONTRIBUTION FROM THE JOBIAN -- 1397 00:45:02,566 --> 00:45:04,401 FROM EYE ONS BEING IMPLANTED 1398 00:45:04,401 --> 00:45:06,904 FROM THE NEXT MOON IN THAT'S 1399 00:45:06,904 --> 00:45:07,971 DEFINITELY GOT PLUMES. 1400 00:45:07,971 --> 00:45:12,443 IT'S GOT SULFUR VOLCANOS 1401 00:45:12,443 --> 00:45:14,078 SPRAYING SULFUR INTO THE WHOLE 1402 00:45:14,078 --> 00:45:14,511 ENVIRONMENT. 1403 00:45:14,511 --> 00:45:15,612 BUT THE DETAILED COMPOSITION OF 1404 00:45:15,612 --> 00:45:17,614 THE CRACKS IN THE DARK AREAS, 1405 00:45:17,614 --> 00:45:20,818 IT'S AN ONGOING STUDY OF 1406 00:45:20,818 --> 00:45:21,218 RESEARCH. 1407 00:45:21,218 --> 00:45:23,220 PEOPLE ARE TRYING TO FIND OUT. 1408 00:45:23,220 --> 00:45:25,155 IT'S OBVIOUSLY A VERY 1409 00:45:25,155 --> 00:45:26,323 INTERESTING QUESTION. 1410 00:45:26,323 --> 00:45:28,192 IT WILL BE VERY NICE TO KNOW THE 1411 00:45:28,192 --> 00:45:29,860 ANSWER TO THAT. 1412 00:45:29,860 --> 00:45:30,360 >> ALL RIGHT. 1413 00:45:30,360 --> 00:45:31,628 WE WILL TAKE ONE MORE QUESTION 1414 00:45:31,628 --> 00:45:34,498 FROM SOCIAL MEDIA. 1415 00:45:34,498 --> 00:45:36,333 >> THIS ONE IS FROM STEPHANIE ON 1416 00:45:36,333 --> 00:45:38,168 TWITTER. SHE WANTS TO KNOW WHAT 1417 00:45:38,168 --> 00:45:39,837 INSTRUMENTS WILL BE NEEDED TO 1418 00:45:39,837 --> 00:45:41,004 DETECT LIFE ON INSOLIDUS AND HOW 1419 00:45:41,004 --> 00:45:45,476 CAN WE HELP?IS IF 1420 00:45:45,476 --> 00:45:45,843 >> OK. 1421 00:45:45,843 --> 00:45:50,614 WITH THAT, LET'S GO TO J.P.L. 1422 00:45:50,614 --> 00:45:50,981 >> HI. 1423 00:45:50,981 --> 00:45:53,884 WELL -- THE INSTRUMENTS -- 1424 00:45:53,884 --> 00:45:57,588 EXCUSE ME, THE INSTRUMENTATION 1425 00:45:57,588 --> 00:45:58,889 THAT WOULD BE -- IN THIS REGARD 1426 00:45:58,889 --> 00:46:00,257 ARE SIMILAR INSTRUMENTS THAT THE 1427 00:46:00,257 --> 00:46:01,692 ONES THAT WE WERE FLYING ON 1428 00:46:01,692 --> 00:46:03,594 CASINI. 1429 00:46:03,594 --> 00:46:04,862 AND THEY ARE CERTAINLY SIMILAR 1430 00:46:04,862 --> 00:46:06,964 TO THE INSTRUMENTS THAT ARE 1431 00:46:06,964 --> 00:46:09,833 PRESENTLY FLYING ON EUROPA. 1432 00:46:09,833 --> 00:46:13,370 MASS SPECTROMETER AND DUST 1433 00:46:13,370 --> 00:46:15,405 ANALYZER ARE BOTH IMPORTANT IN 1434 00:46:15,405 --> 00:46:17,574 DETERMINING THIS HABITABILITY, 1435 00:46:17,574 --> 00:46:21,545 AS WELL AS LOOKING FOR PERHAPS 1436 00:46:21,545 --> 00:46:26,383 FATTY ACIDS, LOOKING AT ISOTOPIC 1437 00:46:26,383 --> 00:46:28,685 RATIOS AND TRYING TO DETERMINE 1438 00:46:28,685 --> 00:46:30,988 SIGNS OF LIFE AS WELL AS TELLING 1439 00:46:30,988 --> 00:46:33,757 US MORE ABOUT THE HABITABILITY. 1440 00:46:33,757 --> 00:46:35,425 LEARNING A LITTLE BIT ABOUT THE 1441 00:46:35,425 --> 00:46:38,162 STRUCTURE OF THE MOLECULES 1442 00:46:38,162 --> 00:46:39,763 THEMSELVES WOULD ALSO BE 1443 00:46:39,763 --> 00:46:40,164 BENEFICIAL. 1444 00:46:40,164 --> 00:46:43,734 AND THAT CAN BE DONE THROUGH 1445 00:46:43,734 --> 00:46:53,143 TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY. 1446 00:46:53,143 --> 00:46:55,913 FOR FLY-THROUGH MISSIONS WHICH 1447 00:46:55,913 --> 00:46:57,080 WE THINK WOULD BE GOOD ENOUGH 1448 00:46:57,080 --> 00:46:58,148 FOR INSOLIDUS, THIS IS A NEXT 1449 00:46:58,148 --> 00:46:59,149 STEP THAT WOULD BE A GOOD 1450 00:46:59,149 --> 00:47:00,884 APPROACH. 1451 00:47:00,884 --> 00:47:01,852 >> WELL THANK YOU. 1452 00:47:01,852 --> 00:47:03,187 NOW, SO BEFORE WE CLOSE, JIM, 1453 00:47:03,187 --> 00:47:05,622 CAN YOU GIVE US SOME CLOSING 1454 00:47:05,622 --> 00:47:05,989 THOUGHTS? 1455 00:47:05,989 --> 00:47:07,691 ANYTHING YOU WOULD LIKE TO TALK 1456 00:47:07,691 --> 00:47:08,258 ABOUT? 1457 00:47:08,258 --> 00:47:09,059 >> IN DEED. 1458 00:47:09,059 --> 00:47:11,395 AND, THIS IS REALLY AN EXCITING 1459 00:47:11,395 --> 00:47:12,396 TIME. 1460 00:47:12,396 --> 00:47:14,765 OUR SCIENCE IS PROCEEDING SO 1461 00:47:14,765 --> 00:47:16,266 RAPIDLY, WE CAN HARDLY KEEP UP 1462 00:47:16,266 --> 00:47:17,935 WITH THESE DISCOVERIES. 1463 00:47:17,935 --> 00:47:20,037 YOU KNOW, WE REALLY ARE LOOKING 1464 00:47:20,037 --> 00:47:23,307 FORWARD TO MORE OF THE HUBBLE 1465 00:47:23,307 --> 00:47:26,877 OBSERVATIONS. 1466 00:47:26,877 --> 00:47:29,146 WE MAY FIND THAT EUROPA IS FAR 1467 00:47:29,146 --> 00:47:30,847 MORE ACTIVE IN A NUMBER OF 1468 00:47:30,847 --> 00:47:33,050 LOCATIONS AND THAT BODES WELL 1469 00:47:33,050 --> 00:47:34,551 WITH, AS I MENTIONED EARLIER, 1470 00:47:34,551 --> 00:47:35,786 FILLING IN THESE CRATERS. 1471 00:47:35,786 --> 00:47:37,821 THESE OCEAN WORLDS HAVE JUST 1472 00:47:37,821 --> 00:47:40,123 BEEN DISCOVERED. 1473 00:47:40,123 --> 00:47:41,725 THEY ARE IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM. 1474 00:47:41,725 --> 00:47:43,293 WE NEED TO PROBE THEM BECAUSE 1475 00:47:43,293 --> 00:47:46,296 THEY ARE ONE OF THE BEST 1476 00:47:46,296 --> 00:47:48,065 LOCATIONS WE BELIEVE THAT MAY 1477 00:47:48,065 --> 00:47:50,367 HARBOR LIFE TODAY. 1478 00:47:50,367 --> 00:47:50,901 >> THANK YOU. 1479 00:47:50,901 --> 00:47:52,536 AND THAT'S ALL THE TIME THAT WE 1480 00:47:52,536 --> 00:47:53,270 HAVE LEFT. 1481 00:47:53,270 --> 00:47:55,072 PLEASE KEEP THOSE QUESTIONS 1482 00:47:55,072 --> 00:47:58,342 COMING ONLINE USING THE HASHTAG 1483 00:47:58,342 --> 00:47:58,909 ASK NASA. 1484 00:47:58,909 --> 00:48:01,245 BE SURE TO FOLLOW US ON ALL OUR 1485 00:48:01,245 --> 00:48:02,346 SOCIAL MEDIA.